Forensic psychology
Outline the historical approach as a biological explanation of offending behaviour (6 marks)
Explanation suggests you are biologically born to a criminal
Lombroso suggested that criminals and essentially throwbacks to an earlier species.
‘Atavistic’ means a tendency to revert to an ancestral type
Lombroso proposed certain features make you more likely to be chin receding, excessive
length of arms, asymmetry of the face
Turvey (2011) identifies 18 different characteristics that make up the atavistic type. Basic
assumption is that innate physiological make-up of person causes them to become a criminal
Lombroso based his theory on his own research using post-mortem examinations of
criminals and studying his faces of living criminals. Particular study= 383 convicted Italian
criminals, found 21% had one atavistic trait and 43% had at least 5
Lombroso proposed inherited atavistic from interacted with person’s physical and social
environment. Led to 3 types of criminals:
o Born criminals= atavistic types, identified by physical characteristics
o Insane criminals= suffering from mental illness
o Crimnaloids= large class of offenders whose mental characteristics predisposed
them to criminal behaviour under the right circumstances
Somatotypes= Kretschmer suggested 4 types based over 4,000 criminals:
o Tall and thin, petty thieves
o Tall and muscular, crimes of violence
o Short and fat, commit crimes of deception and sometimes violence
o More than 1 type, crimes against morality
Outline genetic and neural explanations as biological explanations of offending behaviour (6 marks)
Link between genetic and neural explanations help explain criminal behaviour
Genetic explanations
Genetic explanations propose 1 or more genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviour
Raine (1993)= research into delinquent behaviour of twins and found 52% concordance for
MZ twins compared with 21% for DZ twins
Abnormally low activity levels of MAOA leads to criminal behaviour because it leads to
impulsive and aggressive behaviour (Brunner analyse of DNA 1993)
Low levels of activity in CDH13 and MAOA leads to offensive behaviour (Tilhonen)= 5-10%
crimes due to abnormalities in both genes
Neural explanations
Considers how structures of the brain may be different in criminals as well as differences in
neurotransmitter levels
Murderers, psychopaths and violent individuals have lowered activity in area associated with
impulsiveness and loss of control in prefrontal cortex (Raine 2004= 71 brain image studies)
Raine (1997) = found abnormal asymmetries in limbic system of murderers, especially
amygdala= there was reduced activity on left and increased activity on right
Research (Seo 2008) suggest that low levels of neurotransmitter serotonin may predispose
individuals to impulsive aggression and criminal behaviour, because it leads to a lack of
inhibition of aggressive urges.
, High levels of noradrenaline are associated with activation of sympathetic nervous systems
and flight-or-fight response, and thus linked to aggression. Noradrenaline also helps people
react to perceived threats, so low levels reduce this ability.
Outline cognitive explanations as a psychological explanation for offending behaviour (6 marks)
Cognitive distortions:
Form of irrational thinking where reality has become twisted so that what is
perceived no longer represents what’s actually true
2 examples= hostile attribution bias and minimalization
Hostile attribution bias:
Someone has a leaning towards always thinking the worst
E.g. someone smiling but you think the person is actually thinking bad thoughts
about you= such interpretations than lead to more aggressive behaviour
Linked to increased levels of aggression
Minimalisation:
Offenders under-exaggerate significance of their crimes and emotional
consequences suffered by their crimes
Helps individuals accept consequences of their own behaviour and means negative
emotions can be reduced
Kohlberg’s moral reasoning theory:
Suggested there are 3 universal levels of moral reasoning: characterised by Kohlberg
suggested that there are 3 universal levels of moral reasoning, each characterised by
a certain logic. These include the pre-conventional level (punishment orientation),
the conventional level (maintenance of the social order) and the post-conventional
level (morality of contract and individual rights).
Criminals likely to be at pre-conventional level (Hollins 2002), believe breaking law
justified if rewards outweigh costs or if punishment avoided
Kohlberg proposed that criminals have a childlike, immature sense of reasoning, and
so reason at the pre-conventional level, whilst non-criminals will reason at the
conventional or postconventional levels, thus being able to display more civilised
and empathic behaviours, as suggested by Chandler (1973).
Outline psychodynamic explanations as a psychological explanation to offending behaviour (6 marks)
Bowlby explanation:
Prolonged separation between mother-substitute and child has long term emotional
consequences.
Long term separation= affectionless psychopaths= no empathy= linked criminal behaviour
Bowlby 44 juvenile thieves= Bowlby observed delinquent behaviour (stealing) in young
patients with frequent separation= found 86% affectionless thieves had experienced early
separation= 0 separation for control group
Superego explanation:
Weak or undeveloped superego= occurs because of a lack of identification with same-sex
parent; results in little control over anti-social id impulses
Harsh or overdeveloped superego= overidentification with same-sex parent means excessive
feelings of guilt and a desire to be caught, so punishment can reduce feelings of guilt
Deviant superego= child identifies with a deviant parent and thus adopts deviant attitudes
Outline the historical approach as a biological explanation of offending behaviour (6 marks)
Explanation suggests you are biologically born to a criminal
Lombroso suggested that criminals and essentially throwbacks to an earlier species.
‘Atavistic’ means a tendency to revert to an ancestral type
Lombroso proposed certain features make you more likely to be chin receding, excessive
length of arms, asymmetry of the face
Turvey (2011) identifies 18 different characteristics that make up the atavistic type. Basic
assumption is that innate physiological make-up of person causes them to become a criminal
Lombroso based his theory on his own research using post-mortem examinations of
criminals and studying his faces of living criminals. Particular study= 383 convicted Italian
criminals, found 21% had one atavistic trait and 43% had at least 5
Lombroso proposed inherited atavistic from interacted with person’s physical and social
environment. Led to 3 types of criminals:
o Born criminals= atavistic types, identified by physical characteristics
o Insane criminals= suffering from mental illness
o Crimnaloids= large class of offenders whose mental characteristics predisposed
them to criminal behaviour under the right circumstances
Somatotypes= Kretschmer suggested 4 types based over 4,000 criminals:
o Tall and thin, petty thieves
o Tall and muscular, crimes of violence
o Short and fat, commit crimes of deception and sometimes violence
o More than 1 type, crimes against morality
Outline genetic and neural explanations as biological explanations of offending behaviour (6 marks)
Link between genetic and neural explanations help explain criminal behaviour
Genetic explanations
Genetic explanations propose 1 or more genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviour
Raine (1993)= research into delinquent behaviour of twins and found 52% concordance for
MZ twins compared with 21% for DZ twins
Abnormally low activity levels of MAOA leads to criminal behaviour because it leads to
impulsive and aggressive behaviour (Brunner analyse of DNA 1993)
Low levels of activity in CDH13 and MAOA leads to offensive behaviour (Tilhonen)= 5-10%
crimes due to abnormalities in both genes
Neural explanations
Considers how structures of the brain may be different in criminals as well as differences in
neurotransmitter levels
Murderers, psychopaths and violent individuals have lowered activity in area associated with
impulsiveness and loss of control in prefrontal cortex (Raine 2004= 71 brain image studies)
Raine (1997) = found abnormal asymmetries in limbic system of murderers, especially
amygdala= there was reduced activity on left and increased activity on right
Research (Seo 2008) suggest that low levels of neurotransmitter serotonin may predispose
individuals to impulsive aggression and criminal behaviour, because it leads to a lack of
inhibition of aggressive urges.
, High levels of noradrenaline are associated with activation of sympathetic nervous systems
and flight-or-fight response, and thus linked to aggression. Noradrenaline also helps people
react to perceived threats, so low levels reduce this ability.
Outline cognitive explanations as a psychological explanation for offending behaviour (6 marks)
Cognitive distortions:
Form of irrational thinking where reality has become twisted so that what is
perceived no longer represents what’s actually true
2 examples= hostile attribution bias and minimalization
Hostile attribution bias:
Someone has a leaning towards always thinking the worst
E.g. someone smiling but you think the person is actually thinking bad thoughts
about you= such interpretations than lead to more aggressive behaviour
Linked to increased levels of aggression
Minimalisation:
Offenders under-exaggerate significance of their crimes and emotional
consequences suffered by their crimes
Helps individuals accept consequences of their own behaviour and means negative
emotions can be reduced
Kohlberg’s moral reasoning theory:
Suggested there are 3 universal levels of moral reasoning: characterised by Kohlberg
suggested that there are 3 universal levels of moral reasoning, each characterised by
a certain logic. These include the pre-conventional level (punishment orientation),
the conventional level (maintenance of the social order) and the post-conventional
level (morality of contract and individual rights).
Criminals likely to be at pre-conventional level (Hollins 2002), believe breaking law
justified if rewards outweigh costs or if punishment avoided
Kohlberg proposed that criminals have a childlike, immature sense of reasoning, and
so reason at the pre-conventional level, whilst non-criminals will reason at the
conventional or postconventional levels, thus being able to display more civilised
and empathic behaviours, as suggested by Chandler (1973).
Outline psychodynamic explanations as a psychological explanation to offending behaviour (6 marks)
Bowlby explanation:
Prolonged separation between mother-substitute and child has long term emotional
consequences.
Long term separation= affectionless psychopaths= no empathy= linked criminal behaviour
Bowlby 44 juvenile thieves= Bowlby observed delinquent behaviour (stealing) in young
patients with frequent separation= found 86% affectionless thieves had experienced early
separation= 0 separation for control group
Superego explanation:
Weak or undeveloped superego= occurs because of a lack of identification with same-sex
parent; results in little control over anti-social id impulses
Harsh or overdeveloped superego= overidentification with same-sex parent means excessive
feelings of guilt and a desire to be caught, so punishment can reduce feelings of guilt
Deviant superego= child identifies with a deviant parent and thus adopts deviant attitudes
