Chapter 8
Thinking, decisions, intelligence, and language
What is thought?
Cognitive psychology is the study of mental functions such as intelligence, thinking, language,
memory, and decision making. This branch of psychology studies in cognitions, which can be broadly
defined as the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and comprehension through
thought and experiences.
Cognition: the mental activity that includes thinking and the understandings that result from thinking.
8.1 thinking involves two types of mental representations
Cognitive psychology was originally based on two ideas about thinking:
1. Knowledge about the world is stores in the brain representations
2. Thinking is the mental manipulation of these representations (thinking: the mental
manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world)
Thinking allows us to take information, consider it, and se it to build models of the world, set goals,
and plan our actions accordingly.
In thinking we use two basic types of mental representations: analogical and symbolic. Together,
these two types of representations form the basis of human thought and intelligence and the ability
to solve the complex problems of everyday life. An analogy compares two things tat are similar in
some way.
Analogical representations: mental representations that have some of the physical characteristic of
what they represent. These representation are usually images. For example, maps are analogical
representations that correspond to geographical layouts.
Symbolic representations: abstract mental representations that do not correspond to the physical
features of objects of ideas. These representations are usually words, numbers, or ideas. They do not
have relationships to physical qualities of objects in the world.
Chapter summary → knowledge about the world is stored in the brain in representations. Mental
maps rely on both analogical and symbolical representations.
,8.2 Concepts are symbolic representations
your brain forms a mental image (analogical representation) of a leman and provides you with the
word lemon (symbolic representation).
- Categories
Grouping things based on shared properties is called categorization. This mental activity reduces the
amount of knowledge we must hold in memory and is therefore an efficient way of thinking.
- Concepts
Concept: a category, of class, of related items consisting of mental representations of those items.
Cognitive psychologist have described a number of ways that people form concepts, but there are
two leading models. The prototype model, developed by Eleanor Rosch (1975) and the exemplar
model.
Prototype model: a way of thinking about concepts: within each category, there is a best example – a
prototype – for that category. You tend to look for a best example. Of prototype, for that category.
You categorize new objects based on how similar they are to the prototype.
Exemplar model: a way of thinking about concepts: all members of a category are examples; together
they for the concept and determine category membership. The exemplar model assumes that,
through experience, people form a fuzzy representation of a concept because there is no single
representation of any concept.
- Conceptual thinking in the brain
Imaging studies have shown that different categories of object, such as animals or tools, are
represented in different regions of the brain based on our perception of those objects.
Chapter summary → Concepts are mental representations that categorize items around
commonalities. According to the prototype model, an individual forms a concepts around a category
and then chooses a prototype that best represents the concept. According to the exemplar model, an
individual’s representation of a concept is a combination of all the examples of the category ever
encountered b the individual.
Question
You are learning how to identify edible mushrooms, to make your judgement, you compare all fungi
in the environment to portabella mushrooms in the grocery store. Are you using a prototype of
exemplar model of concept development?
You are using a prototype model because you are categorizing fungi as edible or not based on a
comparison to your “best example” of portabella.
, 8.3 Schemas organize useful information about environments
As we move through various real-world settings, we act appropriately by drawing on knowledge of
which objects, behaviors, and events apply to each setting. Knowledge of how to behave in each
setting relies on schemas. Schemas help us perceive, organize, understand, and process information.
We can use schemas because common situation have consistent rules and because people have
specific roles within situational contexts.
One common type of schema helps us understand the sequence of events in certain situations. Roger
Schank and Robert Abelson (1977) have referred to these schemas about sequences as scripts.
Script: a schema that directs behavior over time within a situation.
In general, schemas and scripts allow us to organize information an common scenarios to help us
understand and process information more efficiently. However, sometimes schemas have unintended
consequences, such as reinforcing sexist or racist beliefs of other stereotypes.
Stereotypes: cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based
on their membership in certain groups.
Gender roles are the prescribed behaviors for females and males within a culture. They represent a
type of schema that operates as the unconscious level.
Mental representation in all forms assist us in using and understanding information about objects and
events.
Chapter summary → A negative consequence of schemas and scripts is that they can reinforce
stereotypes and biases. Schemas and scripts are adaptive because they minimize attentional
requirements and help people recognize and avoid unusual or dangerous situations.
Thinking, decisions, intelligence, and language
What is thought?
Cognitive psychology is the study of mental functions such as intelligence, thinking, language,
memory, and decision making. This branch of psychology studies in cognitions, which can be broadly
defined as the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and comprehension through
thought and experiences.
Cognition: the mental activity that includes thinking and the understandings that result from thinking.
8.1 thinking involves two types of mental representations
Cognitive psychology was originally based on two ideas about thinking:
1. Knowledge about the world is stores in the brain representations
2. Thinking is the mental manipulation of these representations (thinking: the mental
manipulation of representations of knowledge about the world)
Thinking allows us to take information, consider it, and se it to build models of the world, set goals,
and plan our actions accordingly.
In thinking we use two basic types of mental representations: analogical and symbolic. Together,
these two types of representations form the basis of human thought and intelligence and the ability
to solve the complex problems of everyday life. An analogy compares two things tat are similar in
some way.
Analogical representations: mental representations that have some of the physical characteristic of
what they represent. These representation are usually images. For example, maps are analogical
representations that correspond to geographical layouts.
Symbolic representations: abstract mental representations that do not correspond to the physical
features of objects of ideas. These representations are usually words, numbers, or ideas. They do not
have relationships to physical qualities of objects in the world.
Chapter summary → knowledge about the world is stored in the brain in representations. Mental
maps rely on both analogical and symbolical representations.
,8.2 Concepts are symbolic representations
your brain forms a mental image (analogical representation) of a leman and provides you with the
word lemon (symbolic representation).
- Categories
Grouping things based on shared properties is called categorization. This mental activity reduces the
amount of knowledge we must hold in memory and is therefore an efficient way of thinking.
- Concepts
Concept: a category, of class, of related items consisting of mental representations of those items.
Cognitive psychologist have described a number of ways that people form concepts, but there are
two leading models. The prototype model, developed by Eleanor Rosch (1975) and the exemplar
model.
Prototype model: a way of thinking about concepts: within each category, there is a best example – a
prototype – for that category. You tend to look for a best example. Of prototype, for that category.
You categorize new objects based on how similar they are to the prototype.
Exemplar model: a way of thinking about concepts: all members of a category are examples; together
they for the concept and determine category membership. The exemplar model assumes that,
through experience, people form a fuzzy representation of a concept because there is no single
representation of any concept.
- Conceptual thinking in the brain
Imaging studies have shown that different categories of object, such as animals or tools, are
represented in different regions of the brain based on our perception of those objects.
Chapter summary → Concepts are mental representations that categorize items around
commonalities. According to the prototype model, an individual forms a concepts around a category
and then chooses a prototype that best represents the concept. According to the exemplar model, an
individual’s representation of a concept is a combination of all the examples of the category ever
encountered b the individual.
Question
You are learning how to identify edible mushrooms, to make your judgement, you compare all fungi
in the environment to portabella mushrooms in the grocery store. Are you using a prototype of
exemplar model of concept development?
You are using a prototype model because you are categorizing fungi as edible or not based on a
comparison to your “best example” of portabella.
, 8.3 Schemas organize useful information about environments
As we move through various real-world settings, we act appropriately by drawing on knowledge of
which objects, behaviors, and events apply to each setting. Knowledge of how to behave in each
setting relies on schemas. Schemas help us perceive, organize, understand, and process information.
We can use schemas because common situation have consistent rules and because people have
specific roles within situational contexts.
One common type of schema helps us understand the sequence of events in certain situations. Roger
Schank and Robert Abelson (1977) have referred to these schemas about sequences as scripts.
Script: a schema that directs behavior over time within a situation.
In general, schemas and scripts allow us to organize information an common scenarios to help us
understand and process information more efficiently. However, sometimes schemas have unintended
consequences, such as reinforcing sexist or racist beliefs of other stereotypes.
Stereotypes: cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based
on their membership in certain groups.
Gender roles are the prescribed behaviors for females and males within a culture. They represent a
type of schema that operates as the unconscious level.
Mental representation in all forms assist us in using and understanding information about objects and
events.
Chapter summary → A negative consequence of schemas and scripts is that they can reinforce
stereotypes and biases. Schemas and scripts are adaptive because they minimize attentional
requirements and help people recognize and avoid unusual or dangerous situations.
