Philosophy Reason and Belief 2023 with verified questions and answers

Knowledge - correct answerrequires certainty *can't claim to know something if you aren't certain. Changes with the mooreanism, Fallibilism, etc. Perception, other people tell you, thought Certainty - correct answerYou are sure about something. This goes hand in hand with knowledge. You have to be able to know something to be certain. The Problem of Skepticism - correct answer1. Many perceptual beliefs count as knowledge. 2. Knowledge requires certainty. 3. No perceptual beliefs are certain Dream Scenario - correct answerYou can't distinguish between awake and asleep, how do you know which one is real? Pervasive Dream Scenario - correct answerlong, extended dream (in a coma, etc). awakening experience that is apart of the dream (false awakening). Brain in a Vat Scenario - correct answerbrain and central nervous system taken, you are inhabiting a virtual world. You can't claim it didn't happen. Evil Demon Scenario - correct answerYou are not just a brain, but you are a soul or a disembodied mind. The evil demon is deceiving you with illusions, there is no planet or galaxies or anything in reality. Solipsism - correct answerYou are utterly alone, and your mind is self-deceiving, made up this whole life on its own. Skepticism - correct answerReject #1 many perceptual beliefs count as knowledge. You are skeptical against perception Fallibilism - correct answerReject #2 knowledge requires common sense. This isn't against common sense, it just means you don't think perception is absolutely certain. Mooreanism - correct answerReject #3 no perceptual beliefs count as knowledge. Belief that knowledge has to be certain, and you keep common sense/perceptions. (proof of two hands gives certainty). System 1 and System 2 Thinking - correct answerSystem 1: processes are spontaneous and intuitive, characterized by cognitive ease. (Always on, can be unreliable) System 2: processes are logical and methodical, characterized by cognitive effort. (More reliable, voluntary control). Confirmation Bias - correct answerA preference for information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discovering contradictory evidence. Availability Error - correct answerbias that arises from our predisposition to estimate the probability of an outcome based on how easy the outcome is to imagine. Fluency is the ease of recall, there's lots of influence over fluency. Example: Words that start with the letter 'n', overestimate the risk of riding roller coasters. Representativeness Heuristic - correct answerjudging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information. People ignore the Base-Rate Fallacy which is the actual statistical rating of something. Example: Shy poetry person. Are they a busness major or a Chinese literature major? Even though Chinese lit. majors are a smaller percentage people still say lit major. Anthropomorphic Bias - correct answerTendency to attribute human characteristics onto the nonhuman world. Psychological: yelling at computer or car Physical: seeing a face in the clouds. Hyperactive Agent-Detecting Device (HADD) - correct answerYour ADD is a cognitive mechanism that helps you recognize and identify the things you do on purpose, your beliefs and desires. HADD Identifies and over generates an agency when there is none. Example: Only person to survive a train wreck believes they survived for a reason. See birds overhead and hope that they don't poop on you, and then one does, and you think it happened because you didn't want it to. Priming Effect - correct answerOccurs when a stimulus (visual, verbal, emotional) unconsciously influences a behavioral response to a later stimulus. (Truck with Revenge bumper sticker compared to plain truck, the honking reactions) Unaware of what affects their behavior. Dual Attitudes - correct answerFeeling two different ways about something. We have two attitudes, one not accessible to conscious(can be expressed in behavior such as laughter), and one that is that comes from a story you have of yourself. Affective Forecasts - correct answerPredicaments about how you would feel under some future contingency. (If this were to happen...) (3 influences) Durability Bias - correct answerOur tendency to overestimate the duration of an emotional response. Example: You'll never love again if your significant other dies. Years later you fall in love with someone else. Focalism - correct answerTendency to only focus on the situation described, to the exclusion of everything else going on in your life. Immune Neglect - correct answerNeglecting the fact that we are equipped with a psychological immune system that keeps our emotions within an adaptive range. Uncritical-receptivity Model - correct answerJust automatically believe the speaker, unless there is a red flag. More likely to lead to error Inferential Model - correct answerYou rehearse an argument, you rationalize, think it out, find out if the speaker is reliable or not. Testimonial Sensibility - correct answerIssues intuitive judgement of speakers trustworthiness. (Intuition can interpret prejudice) Goal to have a reliable testimonial sensibility and asses trustworthiness correctly. Epistemic Injustice - correct answerTaking someone out of the community of people that receive and share knowledge. happens unconsciously. Example: Asking the person pushing the wheelchair a question and ignoring the person in the wheelchair. Reflexive Critical Openness - correct answerYou are critical of yourself, taking into account political relations (privileged etc) thinking and sizing up the speaker as a source. Open the speaker and willing to trust them. Doesn't mean they always have to trust the speaker, but you can determine if your trust is well placed. Argument - correct answerA set of sentences, some of which are given as evidence supporting another sentence in the set. Premises - correct answerSentences providing evidential support. Conclusion - correct answerSentence supported by the premises. Indicator Words - correct answerwords that indicate the sentence is a premise or conclusion. Premise-indicators: since, because, give that, the reason being that, and assuming that Conclusion-indicators: thus, so, hence, therefore, it follows that, as a result, consequently, and we can conclude that. Extended Arguments - correct answerMany arguments compounded together as one. Done in two ways, Linear Extended arguments and Parallel extended arguments Linear Arguments - correct answerArguments that lead to the same conclusion. You can take the premise of an argument and turn it into a conclusion of another. Parallel Arguments - correct answerMultiple independent lines of evidence. (If you knock out one faulty, you still have 4 different arguments to debunk) Enthymemes - correct answerAn argument with an unstated premises. (Look for universal or statistical generalizations to identify the missing premises). Universal Generalizations - correct answerIf you can prove something is true for one thing, it can be true for another thing. Statistical Generalizations - correct answerA generalization that involves looking at the statistics of things. If it has a high statistic value then its more inclined to be correct... Standard Form - correct answerSetting up the argument in an organized way. p1 p2 ______________ (three dots) conclusion Principal of Charity - correct answerPresent the argument so that it is the strongest, most plausible argument you can attribute to the author. The author isn't there to defend themselves, you don't want to misrepresent the argument. Even if it goes against your views you should still present a good argument. Vagueness - correct answerA term is vague if: *There are borderline cases for its application (tall, young, bald) *It has several application conditions but not all of those which are required for its application (family members-could be biological or adopted etc) *Its usage on a specific occasion provides less specificity than is called for (going 'out', spiritual person, in a minute) Ambiguity - correct answerA term is ambiguous if it has multiple determined meanings.