Attachment Revision Notes:
Attachment is the emotional bond between two people in which each seeks closeness and
feels more secure in the presence of the attachment figure. In Psychology, attachment is the
emotional tie or bond between an infant and caregiver. The relationship is said to be
reciprocal.
Caregiver-infant interactions
Reciprocity:
Reciprocity is a form of interaction between an infant and caregiver involving mutual
responsiveness, with both infant and caregiver responding to each other's signal and each
eliciting a response from the other.
● Alert phases - Babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ in which they signal (e.g. making
eye contact) that they are ready for interaction. From around three months, this
interaction tends to become increasingly frequent and involves both caregiver and
baby paying close attention to each other’s verbal signals and facial expressions
(Feldman 2007).
● Active involvement - Traditional views of childhood have portrayed infants in a
passive role, receiving care from an adult. However, it seems that infants as well as
caregivers can actually take quite an active role. Both caregiver and infant can initiate
interactions and they appear to take turns in doing so.
Interactional synchrony:
Interactional synchrony occurs when a caregiver and infant reflect both the actions and
emotions of the other in a coordinated (synchronised) way.
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony in babies as
young as two weeks old. An adult displayed one of three facial expressions or one of three
distinctive gestures. The infant’s response was filmed and labelled by independent
observers. Babies’ expression and gestures were more likely to mirror those of the adults
more than chance would predict i.e. there was a significant association.
Isabella et al. (1989) observed 30 mothers and babies together and assessed the degree of
synchrony. The researchers also assessed the quality of mother-baby attachment. They
found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-baby
attachment.
, Evaluation (AO3):
+ One strength of the research on reciprocity and interactional synchrony is that
caregiver-infant interactions are usually filmed in a laboratory. This means that
variables that can distract a baby can be controlled. Furthermore, having filmed
interactions means that more than one observer can record data and establish the
inter-rater reliability of observation. Therefore, the evidence supporting this research
has good reliability and validity.
- One limitation of research into caregiver-infant interaction is that it is difficult to
interpret a baby’s behaviour. As young babies lack coordination and much of their
bodies are immobile, we can not know whether a movement such as a hand twitch is
random or triggered by the caregiver’s action. This undermines the validity of the
findings and conclusions of caregiver-infant interactions.
- A further limitation is that simply observing a behaviour does not tell us its
developmental importance. For example, Feldman (2012) concluded that although
caregiver-infant interactions can be reliably observed, they are not particularly useful
in understanding child development as it does not tell us the purpose of these
behaviours. This means that we can not be certain from observational research alone
that reciprocity and interactional synchrony are important for a child’s development.
+ However, other evidence has suggested that early interactions are important for a
child’s development. For example, Isabella et al. (1989) found that the achievement
of interactional synchrony leads to good quality attachment.
Schaffer’s stages of attachment
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) studied the attachment behaviours of babies. This led them
to develop an account of how attachment behaviours change as a baby grows up. They
proposed that there were four identifiable stages of attachment, a sequence which is
observed in all babies.
Schaffer and Emerson’s research
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) studied 60 babies from Glasgow at monthly intervals for the
first 18 months of life. The children were all studied in their own home and a regular pattern
was identified in the development of attachment. The babies were visited monthly for
approximately one year, their interactions with their carers were observed, and carers were
interviewed. A diary was kept by the mother to examine evidence for the development of an
attachment such as separation distress and stranger anxiety. This led to the development of
stages of attachment.
Stage 1: Asocial stage
In a baby’s first few weeks of life its observable behaviour towards humans and inanimate
objects is fairly similar. However, Schaffer and Emerson did not believe it is entirely asocial
because even at this stage, babies prefer to be around people. Babies also tend to show a
preference for the company of familiar people and are more easily comforted by them. At
Attachment is the emotional bond between two people in which each seeks closeness and
feels more secure in the presence of the attachment figure. In Psychology, attachment is the
emotional tie or bond between an infant and caregiver. The relationship is said to be
reciprocal.
Caregiver-infant interactions
Reciprocity:
Reciprocity is a form of interaction between an infant and caregiver involving mutual
responsiveness, with both infant and caregiver responding to each other's signal and each
eliciting a response from the other.
● Alert phases - Babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ in which they signal (e.g. making
eye contact) that they are ready for interaction. From around three months, this
interaction tends to become increasingly frequent and involves both caregiver and
baby paying close attention to each other’s verbal signals and facial expressions
(Feldman 2007).
● Active involvement - Traditional views of childhood have portrayed infants in a
passive role, receiving care from an adult. However, it seems that infants as well as
caregivers can actually take quite an active role. Both caregiver and infant can initiate
interactions and they appear to take turns in doing so.
Interactional synchrony:
Interactional synchrony occurs when a caregiver and infant reflect both the actions and
emotions of the other in a coordinated (synchronised) way.
Meltzoff and Moore (1977) observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony in babies as
young as two weeks old. An adult displayed one of three facial expressions or one of three
distinctive gestures. The infant’s response was filmed and labelled by independent
observers. Babies’ expression and gestures were more likely to mirror those of the adults
more than chance would predict i.e. there was a significant association.
Isabella et al. (1989) observed 30 mothers and babies together and assessed the degree of
synchrony. The researchers also assessed the quality of mother-baby attachment. They
found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-baby
attachment.
, Evaluation (AO3):
+ One strength of the research on reciprocity and interactional synchrony is that
caregiver-infant interactions are usually filmed in a laboratory. This means that
variables that can distract a baby can be controlled. Furthermore, having filmed
interactions means that more than one observer can record data and establish the
inter-rater reliability of observation. Therefore, the evidence supporting this research
has good reliability and validity.
- One limitation of research into caregiver-infant interaction is that it is difficult to
interpret a baby’s behaviour. As young babies lack coordination and much of their
bodies are immobile, we can not know whether a movement such as a hand twitch is
random or triggered by the caregiver’s action. This undermines the validity of the
findings and conclusions of caregiver-infant interactions.
- A further limitation is that simply observing a behaviour does not tell us its
developmental importance. For example, Feldman (2012) concluded that although
caregiver-infant interactions can be reliably observed, they are not particularly useful
in understanding child development as it does not tell us the purpose of these
behaviours. This means that we can not be certain from observational research alone
that reciprocity and interactional synchrony are important for a child’s development.
+ However, other evidence has suggested that early interactions are important for a
child’s development. For example, Isabella et al. (1989) found that the achievement
of interactional synchrony leads to good quality attachment.
Schaffer’s stages of attachment
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) studied the attachment behaviours of babies. This led them
to develop an account of how attachment behaviours change as a baby grows up. They
proposed that there were four identifiable stages of attachment, a sequence which is
observed in all babies.
Schaffer and Emerson’s research
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) studied 60 babies from Glasgow at monthly intervals for the
first 18 months of life. The children were all studied in their own home and a regular pattern
was identified in the development of attachment. The babies were visited monthly for
approximately one year, their interactions with their carers were observed, and carers were
interviewed. A diary was kept by the mother to examine evidence for the development of an
attachment such as separation distress and stranger anxiety. This led to the development of
stages of attachment.
Stage 1: Asocial stage
In a baby’s first few weeks of life its observable behaviour towards humans and inanimate
objects is fairly similar. However, Schaffer and Emerson did not believe it is entirely asocial
because even at this stage, babies prefer to be around people. Babies also tend to show a
preference for the company of familiar people and are more easily comforted by them. At
