Issues and debates
Gender bias Holism and reductionism
Culture Bias Idiographic and nomothetic approaches
Free will and determinism Ethical implications of research
The nature-nurture debate
Gender bias
Key terms
Key term De nition
Universality Theories applying to all people, regardless of gender or culture.
Gender bias When considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to treat one individual or group
differently. In this case, different genders are treated differently
Alpha bias When the differences between men and women are shown and may be exaggerated. Either
to heighten the value of women or devalue them.
Beta bias When differences between the 2 sexes are ignored or minimised and then generalised to
the opposite sex.
Androcentrism A study conducted only on males but generalised also to females
Gender bias
Universality and Psychologists possess beliefs and values in uenced by the social and historical context
bias within which they live. This may undermine psychologists claims to discover facts about
human behaviour that are objective, value free and consistent across time and culture
(universality)
Bias is leaning towards a personal view that doesn’t re ect reality. Psychological
theory and research may not accurately represent the experience and behaviour of men
and women (gender bias)
Alpha bias - Differences between the sexes are usually presented as fixed and inevitable
- These differences occasionally heighten the value of women but are more likely to
devalue females in relation to males
Example- psychodynamic approach
Alpha bias favouring males
Freud claimed children in the phallic stage desire their opposite-sex parent. This is
resolved by identification with their same sex parent. But a girls identification is weaker,
creating a weaker superego and weaker moral development
Alpha bias favouring females
Chodorow said that daughters and mother are more connected than sons and mothers
because of biological similarities- so women develop better bonds and empathy for others
Beta bias Ignoring or underestimating differences between men and women often occurs when
female participants are not included in the research process but it is assumed that
research findings apply equally to both sexes.
Examples - fight or flight, tend and befriend
Early research into fight or flight was based on male animals (because female hormones
fluctuate). It was assumed to be a universal response to a threat
Taylor et al suggest that females exhibit a tend or befriend response governed by the
hormone oxytocin which is more plentiful in women and reduces the fight or flight
response. It is an evolved response for caring for young
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, Androcentrism - Alpha and beta bias are consequences of androcentrism.
- Psychology has traditionally been a subject dominated by males - list of 100 famous
psychologists contained 6 females. This leads to female behaviour being
misunderstood and even pathologised (taken as a sign of illness).
- For example, feminists object to the category of premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
because it medicalises female emotions (e.g. anger) by explaining these in hormonal
terms. But male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressures
(Brescoll and Uhlmann 2008).
Weakness - Maccoby and Jacklin concluded that girls have better verbal ability and boys better
spatial ability- due to hardwired biological di erences.
- Joel et al used brain scanning and found no such gender di erences
- This suggests that we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts when it
might be explained better as social stereotypes
Counterpoint
- It was suggested the popular social stereotype that females are better at multitasking
may have some biological truth to it- their hemispheres are better connected.
- This suggests that there may be biological di erences but we still should be wary of
exaggerating the e ects they may have on behaviour
Weakness - Women are underrepresented in university departments. Research is more likely to be
conducted by males which may disadvantage females
- For example, a male researcher may expect female participants to be irrational and
unable to complete complex tasks which means they underperform
- This means that the institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce
findings that are gender biased.
Weakness - A study analysed 1,000 articles relating to gender bias- such research is funded less
often and is published by less prestigious journals
- This still held true when gender bias was compared to ethnic bias, and when other
factors were controlled (e.g the gender of the authors and methodology)
- This suggests that gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously
as other forms of bias.
Strength - Gender-biased research creates misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fails
to challenge negative stereotypes and validates discriminatory practices
- However, modern researchers recognise the effect assumptions have on their work
(reflexivity) and embrace them as a crucial aspect of the research process
- This suggests that gender bias may add an extra dimension to research if
psychologists are up front about it in their work.
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Gender bias Holism and reductionism
Culture Bias Idiographic and nomothetic approaches
Free will and determinism Ethical implications of research
The nature-nurture debate
Gender bias
Key terms
Key term De nition
Universality Theories applying to all people, regardless of gender or culture.
Gender bias When considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to treat one individual or group
differently. In this case, different genders are treated differently
Alpha bias When the differences between men and women are shown and may be exaggerated. Either
to heighten the value of women or devalue them.
Beta bias When differences between the 2 sexes are ignored or minimised and then generalised to
the opposite sex.
Androcentrism A study conducted only on males but generalised also to females
Gender bias
Universality and Psychologists possess beliefs and values in uenced by the social and historical context
bias within which they live. This may undermine psychologists claims to discover facts about
human behaviour that are objective, value free and consistent across time and culture
(universality)
Bias is leaning towards a personal view that doesn’t re ect reality. Psychological
theory and research may not accurately represent the experience and behaviour of men
and women (gender bias)
Alpha bias - Differences between the sexes are usually presented as fixed and inevitable
- These differences occasionally heighten the value of women but are more likely to
devalue females in relation to males
Example- psychodynamic approach
Alpha bias favouring males
Freud claimed children in the phallic stage desire their opposite-sex parent. This is
resolved by identification with their same sex parent. But a girls identification is weaker,
creating a weaker superego and weaker moral development
Alpha bias favouring females
Chodorow said that daughters and mother are more connected than sons and mothers
because of biological similarities- so women develop better bonds and empathy for others
Beta bias Ignoring or underestimating differences between men and women often occurs when
female participants are not included in the research process but it is assumed that
research findings apply equally to both sexes.
Examples - fight or flight, tend and befriend
Early research into fight or flight was based on male animals (because female hormones
fluctuate). It was assumed to be a universal response to a threat
Taylor et al suggest that females exhibit a tend or befriend response governed by the
hormone oxytocin which is more plentiful in women and reduces the fight or flight
response. It is an evolved response for caring for young
fi fl fl
, Androcentrism - Alpha and beta bias are consequences of androcentrism.
- Psychology has traditionally been a subject dominated by males - list of 100 famous
psychologists contained 6 females. This leads to female behaviour being
misunderstood and even pathologised (taken as a sign of illness).
- For example, feminists object to the category of premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
because it medicalises female emotions (e.g. anger) by explaining these in hormonal
terms. But male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressures
(Brescoll and Uhlmann 2008).
Weakness - Maccoby and Jacklin concluded that girls have better verbal ability and boys better
spatial ability- due to hardwired biological di erences.
- Joel et al used brain scanning and found no such gender di erences
- This suggests that we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts when it
might be explained better as social stereotypes
Counterpoint
- It was suggested the popular social stereotype that females are better at multitasking
may have some biological truth to it- their hemispheres are better connected.
- This suggests that there may be biological di erences but we still should be wary of
exaggerating the e ects they may have on behaviour
Weakness - Women are underrepresented in university departments. Research is more likely to be
conducted by males which may disadvantage females
- For example, a male researcher may expect female participants to be irrational and
unable to complete complex tasks which means they underperform
- This means that the institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce
findings that are gender biased.
Weakness - A study analysed 1,000 articles relating to gender bias- such research is funded less
often and is published by less prestigious journals
- This still held true when gender bias was compared to ethnic bias, and when other
factors were controlled (e.g the gender of the authors and methodology)
- This suggests that gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously
as other forms of bias.
Strength - Gender-biased research creates misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fails
to challenge negative stereotypes and validates discriminatory practices
- However, modern researchers recognise the effect assumptions have on their work
(reflexivity) and embrace them as a crucial aspect of the research process
- This suggests that gender bias may add an extra dimension to research if
psychologists are up front about it in their work.
ff ffff ff
