BIOL 235 Human Anatomy and Physiology Assignment 3 Questions and correct Answers (Correctly Explained).

BIOL 235 Human Anatomy and Physiology Assignment 3 Questions and correct Answers (Correctly Explained). 1. Some patients who suffer from hypertension (high blood pressure) are prescribed medications that are in the category of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors. Explain why these drugs are used to combat hypertension. When blood volume falls or blood flow to the kidneys decreases, juxtaglomerular cells in the kidneys secrete renin into the bloodstream. In sequence, renin and angiotensinconverting enzyme (ACE) act on their substrates to produce the active hormone angiotensin II, which raises blood pressure in two ways. First, angiotensin II is a potent vasoconstrictor; it raises blood pressure by increasing systemic vascular resistance. Second, it stimulates secretion of aldosterone, which increases reabsorption of sodium ions (Na+) and water by the kidneys. The water reabsorption increases total blood volume, which increases blood pressure. ACE inhibitor prevents an enzyme in the body from producing angiotensin II, a substance that increases blood pressure. 2. Describe the fate of an RBC traveling from the heart to the left elbow and back to the heart. Usually blood passes from the heart and then in sequence through arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins and then back to the heart. In some parts of the body, however, blood passes from one capillary network into another through a vein called a portal vein. Such a circulation of blood is called a portal system. The name of the portal system gives the name of the second capillary location. For example, there are portal systems associated with the liver (hepatic portal circulation; and the pituitary gland. Unlike their thick-walled arterial counterparts, venules and veins have thin walls that do not readily maintain their shape. Venules drain the capillary blood and begin the return flow of blood back toward the heart. Although veins are composed of essentially the same three layers as arteries, the relative thicknesses of the layers are different. The tunica interna of veins is thinner than that of arteries; the tunica media of veins is much thinner than in arteries, with relatively little smooth muscle and elastic fibers. The tunica externa of veins is the thickest layer and consists of collagen and elastic fibers. Veins lack the internal or external elastic laminae found in arteries. They are distensible enough to adapt to variations in the volume and pressure of blood passing through them, but are not designed to withstand high pressure. The lumen of a vein is larger than that of a comparable artery, and veins oft en appear collapsed (flattened) when sectioned. The pumping action of the heart is a major factor in moving venous blood back to the heart. The contraction of skeletal muscles in the lower limbs also helps boost venous return to the heart. The average blood pressure in veins is considerably lower than in arteries. The difference in pressure can be noticed when blood flows from a cut vessel. Blood leaves a cut vein in an even, slow flow but spurts rapidly from a cut artery. Most of the structural differences between arteries and veins reflect this pressure difference. For example, the walls of veins are not as strong as those of arteries. Many veins, especially those in the limbs, also contain valves, thin folds of tunica interna that form flaplike cusps. The valve cusps project into the lumen, pointing toward the heart. The low blood pressure in veins allows blood returning to the heart to slow and even back up; the valves aid in venous return by preventing the backflow of blood. 3. Explain the steps that result in antibody production and describe the process that results in an activated B-cell. An antibody (Ab) can combine specifically with the epitope on the antigen that triggered its production. The antibody’s structure matches its antigen much as a lock accepts a specific key. In theory, plasma cells could secrete as many different antibodies as there are different B-cell receptors because the same recombined gene segments code for both the BCR and the antibodies eventually secreted by plasma cells. The body contains not only millions of different T cells but also millions of different B cells, each capable of responding to a specific antigen. Cytotoxic T cells leave lymphatic tissues to seek out and destroy a foreign antigen, but B cells stay put. In the presence of a foreign antigen, a specific B cell in a lymph node, the spleen, or mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue becomes activated. Then it undergoes clonal selection, forming a clone of plasma cells and memory cells. During activation of a B cell, an antigen binds to B-cell receptors (BCRs). These integral transmembrane proteins are chemically similar to the antibodies that eventually are secreted by plasma cells. Although B cells can respond to an unprocessed antigen present in lymph or interstitial fluid, their response is much more intense when they process the antigen. Antigen processing in a B cell occurs in the following way: The antigen is taken into the B cell, broken down into peptide fragments and combined with MHC-II selfantigens, and moved to the B cell plasma membrane. Helper T cells recognize the antigen–MHC-II complex and deliver the costimulation needed for B cell proliferation and differentiation. The helper T cell produces interleukin-2 and other cytokines that function as costimulators to activate B cells. Once activated, a B cell undergoes clonal selection. The result is the formation of a clone of B cells that consists of plasma cells and memory B cells. Plasma cells secrete antibodies. A few days after exposure to an antigen, a plasma cell secretes hundreds of millions of antibodies each day for about 4 or 5 days, until the plasma cell dies. Most antibodies travel in lymph and blood to the invasion site. Interleukin-4 and interleukin-6, also produced by helper T cells, enhance B cell proliferation, B cell differentiation into plasma cells, and secretion of antibodies by plasma cells. Memory B cells do not secrete antibodies. Instead, they can quickly proliferate and differentiate into more plasma cells and more memory B cells should the same antigen reappear at a future time. Different antigens stimulate different B cells to develop into plasma cells and their accompanying memory B cells. All of the B cells of a particular clone are capable of secreting only one type of antibody, which is identical to the antigen receptor displayed by the B cell that first responded. Each specific antigen activates only those B cells that are predestined (by the combination of gene segments they carry) to secrete antibody specific to that antigen. Antibodies produced by a clone of plasma cells enter the circulation and form antigen–antibody complexes with the antigen that initiated their production. 4. State Boyle’s Law and explain how it relates to the process of pulmonary ventilation. Pulmonary ventilation, or breathing, consists of inhalation and exhalation. The movement of air into and out of the lungs depends on pressure changes governed in part by Boyle’s law, which states that the volume of a gas varies inversely with pressure, assuming that temperature remains constant. The alternating pressure differences created by contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles, resulted into air flows between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs. The rate of airflow and the amount of effort needed for breathing are also influenced by alveolar surface tension, compliance of the lungs, and airway resistance. 5. Describe the Bohr Effect. Explain how PO2 in the lungs and tissue cells determines whether oxygen binding or dissociation occurs with hemoglobin. The most important factor that determines how much O2 binds to hemoglobin is the PO2; the higher the PO2, the more O2 combines with Hb. When reduced hemoglobin (Hb) is completely converted to oxyhemoglobin (Hb–O2), the hemoglobin is said to be fully saturated; when hemoglobin consists of a mixture of Hb and Hb–O2, it is partially saturated. The percent saturation of hemoglobin expresses the average saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen. The explanation for the Bohr Effect is that hemoglobin can act as a buffer for hydrogen ions (H+). When H+ ions bind to amino acids in hemoglobin, they alter its structure slightly, decreasing its oxygen-carrying capacity. Therefore, lowered pH drives O2 off hemoglobin, making more O2 available for tissue cells. Elevated pH increases the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 and shifts the oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve to the left. As acidity increases, the affinity of hemoglobin for O2 decreases and O2 dissociates more readily from hemoglobin. As pH decreases, the entire oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve shifts to the right. At any given PO2, hemoglobin is less saturated with O2. This is a change termed the Bohr Effect.