CPL's Course: Operations 2023 with complete solution questions and answers

WARFIGHTING PHILOSOPHY •Maneuver warfare seeks to shatter the enemy's cohesion through a series of rapid, violent, and unexpected actions which create a turbulent and rapidly deteriorating situation with which the enemy cannot cope. •Besides traits such as endurance and courage that all warfare demands, maneuver warfare puts a premium on certain particular human skills and traits. It requires: - The temperament to cope with uncertainty. - Flexibility of mind to deal with fluid and disorderly situations. - A willingness to act with initiative and boldness. - The moral courage to accept responsibility for this type of behavior. LEADERSHIP PHILOSOPHY Leading Marines describes a leadership philosophy that reflects the traditional strengths of the Marine Corps as an institution and attempts to define the very ethos of being a Marine. Marine leadership philosophy: •Is about the inseparable relationship between the leader and the led, and is as much about the individual Marine—the bedrock upon which our Corps is built—as it is about any leader •Captures the undefinable spirit that forms the character of our Corps—being a Marine comes from the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor that is tattooed on the soul of every one of us after earning the title United States Marine •Is based upon certain fundamental traits and principles of leading—Marines are not born knowing them, but must learn what they are and what they represent HONOR A code of personal integrity, honor guides those who do the right thing when no one is looking. It is not only a duty but also a distinction, as those who possess honor are held in honor. It is found in one's beliefs but exhibited through one's actions. Marines are held to the highest of standards, ethically and morally. Marines are expected to act responsibly in a manner befitting the title they have earned. COURAGE When other principles are tested, it is courage that prevents them from crumbling. It is not about ignoring fear but being stronger than fear. Courage is the guardian of all other values. It is there when times are toughest, when difficult decisions have to be made. It takes the form of mental, physical, and ethical strength, and it is found in the backbone of every Marine. COMMITMENT Commitment is the spirit of determination found in every Marine. It is what compels Marines to serve our nation and the Corps and to continue on when others quit. Commitment does not take breaks, and it cannot be faked. It measures and proves one's desire, dedication, and faithfulness. Becoming a United States Marine represents the highest level of commitment. WAR DEFINED War is defined as a violent clash of interests between or among organized groups characterized by the use of military force. •These groups have traditionally been established nation-states, but they also include any non- state group—such as an international coalition or a faction within or outside of an existing state—with its own political interests and the ability to generate organized violence on a scale sufficient to have significant political consequences. •The essence of war is a violent struggle between two hostile, independent, and irreconcilable wills, each trying to impose itself on the other. It is critical to keep in mind that the enemy is not an inanimate object to be acted upon but an independent and animate force with its own objectives and plans. •Appreciating this dynamic interplay between opposing human wills is essential to understanding the fundamental nature of war. OBJECTIVE OF WAR The objective of war is to impose our will on our enemy. •The means to this end is the organized application or threat of violence by military force. •The target of that violence may be limited to hostile combatant forces or it may extend to the enemy population at large. •War may range from intense clashes between large military forces—sometimes backed by an official declaration of war—to subtler, unconventional hostilities that barely reach the threshold of violence. FRICTION Countless factors make war difficult to conduct. Collectively, these factors are called friction. Friction: •Is the force that resists all action and saps energy. It makes the simple difficult and the difficult seemingly impossible •Can be mental or physical •Can be external or self-imposed Whatever form it takes war is a human enterprise; therefore, friction will always have a psychological as well as a physical impact. UNCERTAINTY Another attribute of war is uncertainty. All actions in war take place in an atmosphere of uncertainty, or in the "fog of war." •Uncertainty pervades battle in the form of unknowns about the enemy, the environment, and even the friendly situation. •The very nature of war makes certainty impossible; all actions in war will be based on incomplete, inaccurate, or even contradictory information. •Because we can never eliminate uncertainty, we must learn to fight effectively despite it. We can do this by: - Developing simple and flexible plans - Planning for likely contingencies - Developing standing operating procedures - Fostering initiative among subordinates FLUIDITY Each episode in war is the temporary result of a unique combination of circumstances, presenting a unique set of problems and requiring an original solution. Since war is a fluid phenomenon, its conduct requires flexibility of thought. •Success depends in large part on the ability to adapt—to proactively shape changing events to our advantage as well as to react quickly to constantly changing conditions. •The tempo of war will fluctuate from periods of intense combat to periods in which activity is limited to information gathering, replenishment, or redeployment. •A competitive rhythm will develop between the opposing wills with each belligerent trying to influence and exploit tempo and the continuous flow of events to suit their purposes. DISORDER Disorder is an inherent characteristic of war; we can never eliminate it. •In the heat of battle, plans will go awry, instructions and information will be unclear and misinterpreted, communications will fail, and mistakes and unforeseen events will be commonplace. •It is precisely this natural disorder which creates the conditions ripe for exploitation by an opportunistic will. •If we are to win, we must be able to operate in a disorderly environment. In fact, we must not only be able to fight effectively in the face of disorder, we should seek to generate disorder and use it as a weapon against our opponent. COMPLEXITY War is a complex phenomenon. We have described war as essentially a clash between opposed wills. •A division is comprised of regiments, a regiment is comprised of battalions, and so on all the way down to individual Marines. Similarly, a wing is compromised of groups, groups are comprised of squadrons, down to the actions of individual Marines. •Each element is part of a larger whole and must cooperate with other elements for the accomplishment of the common goal. At the same time, each has its own mission; must adapt to its own situation; and must deal with friction, uncertainty, and disorder. •As a result, war is not governed by the actions or decisions of a single individual in any one place but emerges from the collective behavior of all the individual parts in the system interacting locally in response to local conditions and incomplete information. Efforts to fully centralize military operations and to exert complete control by a single decision-maker are inconsistent with the complex and distributed nature of war. THE HUMAN DIMENSION The human dimension is central in war. It is the human dimension which infuses war with its intangible moral factors. •War is shaped by human nature and is subject to the complexities, inconsistencies, and peculiarities that characterize human behavior. •War is an extreme trial of moral and physical strength and stamina. Individuals and groups of people react differently to the stress of war; an act that may break the will of one enemy may only serve to stiffen the resolve of another. Human will, instilled through leadership, is the driving force of all action in war. VIOLENCE AND DANGER War is among the greatest horrors known to humanity. •The means of war is force, applied in the form of organized violence. It is through the use of violence, or the credible threat of violence, that we compel our enemy to do our will. •Violence is an essential element of war, and its immediate result is bloodshed, destruction, and suffering. •While the magnitude of violence may vary with the object and means of war, the violent essence of war will never change. Since war is a violent enterprise, danger is ever present. The human reaction to danger—fear— has a significant impact on the conduct of war. •Everybody feels fear. Courage is not the absence of fear; rather, it is the strength to overcome fear. •Leaders must foster the courage to overcome fear, both individually and within the unit. PHYSICAL, MORAL, AND MENTAL FORCES War is characterized by the interaction of physical, moral, and mental forces. •Physical forces of war are easily recognized, such as men and materiel. •Moral factors, such as a nation's resolve and a unit's morale, are harder to grasp. The term "moral" as used here is not restricted to ethics, although ethics are certainly included, but pertains to those forces of a psychological rather than tangible nature. •Mental factors affect our ability to out-think our enemy. Just because the moral and mental factors are difficult to quantify does not mean that they can be neglected. The moral and mental forces exert a greater influence on the nature and outcome of war. THE EVOLUTION OF WAR While the nature of war is constant, the means and methods we use evolve continuously. The operating environments, tactics, and techniques have changed as mankind and technology have become more developed. Technology advancements are major catalysts of change. Drastic changes in war have occurred due to developments that dramatically upset the equilibrium of war. For example: •Development and use of the rifled bore •Conception and use of conscription to man armies •Use of modern modes of transportation to support war Marine leaders must continue to educate themselves and use this evolution process to their advantage. As an NCO, you must remain proactive in your efforts to develop new skills and learn to apply them in the execution of your daily duties. Science of War Various aspects of war fall within the realm of science, which is the methodical application of the empirical laws of nature. The science of war includes those activities directly subject to the laws of ballistics, mechanics, and similar disciplines. For example, the application of fires, the effects of weapons, and the rates and methods of movement and resupply. However, science does not describe the whole phenomenon. Art of War An even greater part of the conduct of war falls under the realm of art, which is the employment of creative or intuitive skills. Art includes the creative, situational application of scientific knowledge through judgment and experience, and so the art of war subsumes the science of war. The art of war requires the intuitive ability to grasp the essence of a unique military situation and the creative ability to devise a practical solution. It involves conceiving strategies and tactics and developing plans of action to suit a given situation. This still does not describe the whole phenomenon. Dynamic of War There is far more to the conduct of war than can be explained by art and science. Art and science stop short of explaining the fundamental dynamic of war. The essential dynamic of war is the dynamic of competitive human interaction rather than the dynamic of art or science. Human beings interact with each other in ways that are fundamentally different from the way a scientist works with chemicals or formulas or the way an artist works with paints or musical notes. It is because of this dynamic of human interaction that fortitude, perseverance, boldness, esprit, and other traits not explainable by art or science are so essential in war. WAR AS AN ACT OF POLICY War is an extension of both policy and politics with the addition of military force. Policy and politics are related but not synonymous. •Politics refers to the distribution of power through dynamic interaction, both cooperative and competitive. •Policy refers to the objectives established within the political process. •We should recognize that war is not an inanimate instrument, but an animate force which may likely have unintended consequences that may change the political situation. STRATEGIC The strategic level involves national strategy and military strategy. •National strategy sets policy objectives and mobilizes the nation's resources for attaining these goals. •Military strategy focuses on the military means for attaining policy goals. •At the strategic level, forces are distributed and theaters of war are established. OPERATIONAL The operational level of war links tactics and strategy. •At the operational level, we decide where, when, and under what conditions we will meet the enemy. •The operational level is focused on winning campaigns. TACTICAL The lowest level is the tactical level. Tactics refers to the techniques and methods for accomplishing a particular mission. •Tactics focus on defeating the enemy at a particular place and time. •Tactics are focused on winning battles. •Most Marines, from rifleman to MEF commander, operate at the tactical level, but many tactical decisions have operational and even strategic implications. The levels of war overlap and affect each other from the top down and from the bottom up. STYLES OF WAR •Attrition seeks to wear down an enemy's material resources. •Maneuver warfare seeks to circumvent problems and attack them from a position of advantage. Maneuver warfare seeks to paralyze the enemy system. In maneuver warfare: •Enemy strengths are avoided and weaknesses are exploited. •Speed and surprise are used to create and exploit an advantage, which often involves greater risk. •Firepower and attrition are necessary when our forces are focused upon particular elements of the enemy's forces. CREATING AND EXPLOITING OPPORTUNITY Exploiting opportunity is the ability and willingness to ruthlessly exploit an opportunity to generate decisive results. At times, it may be difficult to identify the enemy's critical vulnerabilities. We may attack each vulnerability until an opportunity arises. •NCOs that understand the theory and nature of war will be better equipped to anticipate, create, recognize, and exploit fleeting opportunities. •The ability to take advantage of opportunity is a function of: -Speed -Boldness -Flexibility -Initiative A technically and tactically proficient NCO empowered to think critically and make decisions is critical to creating and ruthlessly exploiting opportunities that generate decisive results. FUTURE OPERATING ENVIRONMENT The future operating environment will be one of constant and accelerating change. •Economic, demographic, resource, climate, and other trends will engender competition locally, regionally, and globally. •Global integration, intense nationalism, and religious movements will likely exacerbate the tensions created by each of these trends. •Of particular concern are: - Failed and failing states, which could lead to more "ungoverned spaces" and become safe havens for terrorists, criminals, and groups engaged in other illicit activities - Rogue states that use proxies, which allow the state to distance itself from actions and achieve strategic aims simultaneously DEFINE TRADITIONAL WARFARE Traditional warfare is defined as a form of warfare between the regulated militaries of states, or alliances of states, in which the objective is to defeat an adversary's armed forces, destroy an adversary's war-making capacity, or seize or retain territory to force a change in an adversary's government or policies DEFINE IRREGULAR WARFARE Joint Publication 1-02 defines irregular warfare as: A violent struggle among state and non-state actors for legitimacy and influence over the relevant population(s). Irregular warfare favors indirect and asymmetric approaches, though it may employ the full range of military and other capacities, to erode an adversary's power, influence, and will DEFINE HYBRID WARFARE Hybrid warfare is not an official DoD term and is not defined in Joint Pub 1-02, but the term has been used in recent joint and Service documents. •The term hybrid warfare has been used to describe the increasing complexity of conflict that will require a highly adaptable and resilient response from U.S. forces; however, it is not considered a distinct form of warfare. • Hybrid warfare blends traditional and irregular warfare approaches across the full spectrum of conflict. POLICY DoDD 3000.07 policy on irregular warfare is: •As strategically important as traditional warfare, and the DoD must be equally capable in both. Many of the capabilities and skills required for IW are applicable to traditional warfare, but their role in IW can be proportionally greater. •The DoD will be proficient in irregular warfare. •Conducted independently of, or in combination with, traditional warfare. IRREGULAR WARFARE ACTIVITIES -Counter-terrorism -Unconventional -Foreign Internal Defense -Counter-Insurgency -Stability Operations COUNTER TERRORISM Counterterrorism is defined as actions taken directly against terrorist networks and indirectly to influence and render global and regional environments inhospitable to terrorist networks. •The joint force will conduct lethal and non-lethal operations against terrorists and their networks to deter, disrupt, and defeat terrorists and their enablers. •The focus of effort in counterterrorism is to capture or kill terrorists to permanently remove them from a position of damaging influence in the populace. This focus of joint force operations will be to first identify and understand the terrorist network's leadership, affiliate groups, local organizations, radicalized individuals, and supporters and enablers, and then undertake continuous action as part of a global counterterrorist network that uses a broad set of interagency and multinational partner capabilities. UNCONVENTIONAL WARFARE Unconventional warfare is defined as activities conducted to enable a resistance movement or insurgency to coerce, disrupt, or overthrow a government or occupying power by operating through or with an underground, auxiliary, and guerrilla force in a denied area. The joint force may employ unconventional warfare to counter irregular threats, such as states that wage irregular or proxy warfare. Pursuant to a national policy decision, the joint force may conduct unconventional warfare to: •Induce change in a foreign government's behavior that is contrary to U.S. national interests. •Isolate, destabilize, or undermine a hostile foreign government. •Enable the overthrow of a hostile regime or a shadow government or force the withdrawal of an occupying power by supporting an insurgency. FOREIGN INTERNAL DEFENSE Foreign internal defense, or FID, is defined as participation by civilian and military agencies of a government in any of the action programs taken by another government or other designated organization to free and protect its society from subversion, lawlessness, insurgency, terrorism, and other threats to its security. While the Department of State will generally lead efforts that support the sovereign host-nation government's defense and development plan, the joint force will often focus on the military element of FID to build the host-nation's security capacity, from the ministerial to tactical level. It may, if requested, also support civilian-led efforts to improve the host-nation's governance and development capacity, for example by providing advisory assistance outside of the security sector in support of interagency requirements. COUNTERINSURGENCY Counterinsurgency is defined as comprehensive civilian and military efforts taken to defeat an insurgency and to address any core grievances. The joint force, in conjunction with civilian agencies, will conduct military, political, economic, and information- related actions as well as civic actions to defeat an insurgency. The joint force may lead COIN operations or it may support the host-nation's COIN operations. •The primary focus of effort for the joint force is to establish security, counter subversion, and disrupt the insurgency and its external support network. •As it establishes security, the joint force will also help build the host-nation's ability to provide security and support development and governance to gain or maintain its legitimacy. STABILITY OPERATIONS Stability operations is an overarching term encompassing various military missions, tasks, and activities conducted outside the United States in coordination with other instruments of national power to maintain or reestablish a safe and secure environment, provide essential governmental services, emergency infrastructure reconstruction, and humanitarian relief. •The Department of State (DoS) and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) will be the lead U.S. agencies to support a host-nation's efforts to establish or improve key aspects of governance to include rule of law and a variety of services. •In a large-scale effort, a shortage of personnel from non- Department of Defense (DoD) agencies may require the use of DoD personnel, including civilians and reservists, who possess critical non-military skills in governance, rule of law, and development. LEADERSHIP AND ETHICAL IMPERATIVES The final rules of leadership and ethical imperatives are: •No better friend, no worse enemy: There is no better friend to the populace and no worse enemy to the insurgent. •First, do no harm: Avoid and prevent the killing or wounding of innocents. This is inherent to our mission. •The people are not the enemy, but our enemy hides amongst them. •Professionalism: Our actions and appearance demonstrate our professionalism at all times. We are confident, alert, and proficient. We fully understand the nature of the fight, the rightness of our cause, and are ready to show our courage to those friendly and enemy observers watching our every move. •Consistent and continuous application of individual and small unit discipline and tactical skills: These skills include use of micro- terrain, covering each other's back, understanding the value of cover and local security in relation to the enemy's ability to gain an advantage, and understanding that urban combat is all about angles. Complacency kills, and it only takes a moment of inattention for complacency to take its toll. Teach your Marines to be hard to kill. DEFINE CULTURE Culture is defined as the shared world view and social structure of a group of people that influence a person's and a group's actions and choices. •This definition emphasizes that cultural beliefs and social structures influence people's actions and choices. •By focusing on the outcome of cultural beliefs and structures—the actions that people take—this definition provides Marines with an observable behavior, rather than an unobservable belief system, that can be incorporated into operational planning. The word "culture" not only refers to the meanings and beliefs that people hold, but sometimes to a specific group of people. To distinguish this meaning, we need to define a culture group. A culture group is a group of people whose common world view unites them in a system of social structures and shared behaviors. OPERATIONAL CULTURE The Marine Corps defines operational culture as the aspects of culture that influence the outcome of a military operation and conversely, the military actions that influence the culture within an area of operations, or AO. Operational culture can be used by Marines to better understand an AO and to plan and execute across the operational spectrum. Culture affects military operations regardless of where the operation is located. Operational culture consists of: •Operationally relevant behavior, relationships and perceptions of indigenous security forces who Marines operate against or with, civilian populations Marines operate among, indigenous communities or groups Marines wish to influence, and international partners in coalition operations •Dimensions that influence operationally relevant behavior, conduct, and attitudes •Historical trends that influence the interaction among cultural dimensions •The capability to successfully plan and execute humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, pre-hostility, shaping operations, successive campaign phases, and post hostilities which include reconstruction, stabilization, and peace-making or -keeping CROSS-CULTURE COMPETENCE Cross-cultural competence refers to your ability to understand people from different cultures and effectively engage with them. •Being able to communicate and work with people across cultures is a common combat skill required of all Marines. •Cross-cultural competence helps you develop the mutual understanding and human relationships that are necessary for accomplishing your mission. The Center for Advanced Operational Culture Learning (CAOCL) has identified a set of four useful skills to improve cross-culture competence in operational environments. Be Culturally Self-aware Remain aware of the fact that you see the world in a particular way because of your own background, personal history, and culture. •People see, interpret, and evaluate situations in different ways. What is considered an appropriate behavior in one culture is frequently inappropriate in another. Misunderstandings arise when people use their own reality to make sense of someone else's reality. •Misinterpretations can occur when people lack awareness of their own behavioral rules and project them upon others. In the absence of basic cultural knowledge, people tend to assume instead of learning what a behavior means to the person involved. For example, a straight look into a person's face is disrespectful in Japan. •For this reason, the first step of cross-cultural communication is to assess yourself. Take a Cultural Perspective Try to view situations through the perspective of another culture. Being able to consider the cultural perspectives of others during intercultural encounters: •Can reduce conflict and misunderstandings •Requires insight into others' thoughts, motivations, and concerns •Allows you to see or feel others' behavior in the frame of that person's cultural beliefs and value system Manage Your Cultural Attitudes You don't have to like another culture. However, you do have to remain aware of your reactions to values and customs that are different from your own. •Being culturally self-aware and attempting to perceive things from the point of view of other cultures can help you manage your attitudes. •By suspending judgements, you are able to collect as much information as possible to accurately understand the situation before evaluating it. Reflect and Seek Feedback Continue to reflect upon and learn from your interactions and experiences after they occur. •After an interaction, consider whether you conveyed the intended message. Consider why you were or were not successful. •If available, ask a local or a member of the host-nation security force. FIVE DIMENSIONS OF OPERATIONAL CULTURE While cultures are diverse and complex, each is organized according to a predictable set of dimensions. Marines should be familiar with the cultural dimensions of their operational environment. Each culture has unique features; to better understand these features, the Marine Corps organizes them into a model called the Five Dimensions of Operational Culture. This five dimension model: •Can be used to learn and organize knowledge about any culture •Focuses on the people of the AO and their interactions and relationship with each dimension PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT All cultures have developed a unique interdependent relationship with their physical environment. Marines should consider the way a cultural group determines the use of the physical environment. •Who has access to operationally relevant features of the physical environment? •How does the culture view these resources? For example, land may be privately owned or free to everyone. Important features of the physical environment include: •Water •Land •Food •Materials for shelter •Climate and seasons •Fuel and power •Transportation and Communication ECONOMY All cultural groups have a specific system for obtaining, producing, and distributing items (food, clothing, cars, houses, etc.) and services (medical care, education, etc.) that people need or want to survive in their society. This system is called the economy of a culture. There are three important models of economic systems that are significant for a Marine working in a foreign AO: •Formal and informal economic systems •Economy as a network of exchange •Economy as a way of structuring social relationships SOCIAL STRUCTURE All cultures assign people different roles, status, and power within the group. The way that roles, relationships, power, and status are reflected within a group is called the social structure. •In the U.S., people ideally earn their status or position on the basis of their skills and abilities, but in many parts of the world this is not necessarily the case. •In many culture groups, a person's role, status, and power are frequently determined by his or her biological characteristics or social interactions. The following factors often determine social structure: - Age - Gender - Kinship - Tribal membership - Class - Ethnic membership - Religious membership POLITICAL STRUCTURE Political structure is defined as the way power and leadership are apportioned to people and exercised according to the social structure of the society. Politics works differently for each individual culture. For example, the way that a culture group determines who has power and control and how that power is legitimized and exerted can vary between cultures. To understand the political structures and relations in an AO, Marines need to distinguish between the concepts of power and authority: •Power is the ability to control or influence the behavior of individuals or groups of people. •Authority is the legal or popularly granted permission to exercise power. It is legitimacy in the exercise of power. Belief System All culture groups have a shared set of beliefs that unite individual members. Beliefs are learned and originate from many sources: family, traditions, education, religion, ideologies, and even personal experience. Although some beliefs may vary among individuals, shared belief systems can be very powerful, affecting behavior and influencing the way people perceive their world. Belief systems have a variety of features such as: •History, collective memory, and folklore •Traditions and rituals •Norms, mores, and taboos •Religion OPERATIONAL CULTURE IN MISSION PLANNING It is not the purpose of operational culture to provide specific steps that Marines are expected to follow in applying culture to military operations. To the contrary, Marines must use principles of culture in a flexible and creative manner to achieve operational success. •There is no single formula or checklist that can serve Marine purposes across the spectrum of military activities around the world. "One size fits all" does not suit the application of culture to the spectrum of Marine involvement in foreign AOs. •Just as operational and strategic planning requires an intuitive understanding of the process, incorporating culture into operations is equally an intellectually informed "art" as it is a "science." •Cultural knowledge can help produce courses of action that generate less friction with the local populace or foreign counterpart. This should help facilitate the accomplishment of your mission. When planning operations, remember that influencing one dimension will often affect other dimensions. DEFINE NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Nonverbal communication is the process of sending and receiving wordless messages based on a person's actions or mannerisms. It is an important component of delivering meaning in most cultures. Nonverbal communication: •Includes facial expressions, the tone and pitch of the voice, gestures displayed through body language, and the physical distance between communicators •Conveys status, desire, and mood and is usually based upon symbols, values, ideals, and images accepted among a particular culture group Natives of a given culture can generally recognize when someone is not from their culture by the gestures or body language they use. Marines' use of nonverbal communication to convey meaning across cultures will be limited by their knowledge of common nonverbal cues of that culture. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION In addition to the physical and verbal symbols of communication, people around the world have developed unique nonverbal behavioral symbols that convey important meaning in social contexts. •Some of these nonverbal symbols such as smiling, laughing, and crying appear to be shared across virtually all societies around the world. •Other nonverbal symbols, however, vary from culture to culture. Indeed, some symbols have exceedingly different meanings in different cultural contexts. For example, the practice of forming an "O" by joining the thumb and index finger is a positive sign indicating "OK" in American society. In some parts of Asia, however, it is an obscene gesture. INTENTIONAL vs. UNINTENTIONAL COMMUNICATION A majority of nonverbal communication occurs unintentionally. The value of intentional vs. unintentional communication lies in consciousness. •When a Marine is conscious of all levels of communication and acts according to the intended message, that Marine can become a highly effective communicator. •Marines should intentionally use body language to help communicate their message. •A simple example is a squad leader on an urban patrol. The squad leader will use nonverbal communication to portray different messages to different audiences. - When attempting to provide presence in an area, the squad leader will remain stern, keep ballistic glasses on, and maintain a steady pace of patrol. - When attempting to build host-nation capability in an area, that same squad leader will likely stop to engage locals, remove ballistic glasses when speaking with local civilians, and may even smile. - In both instances, the leader is alert and ready to take action, but uses nonverbal cues to convey the intended message. SYMBOLS Symbols are used by individuals and groups to communicate their identity. •Think of something as obvious as the red stripe on the dress blue uniform. Who wears it, how thick the stripe is, and its meaning are all well known to Marines. However, someone unfamiliar with the Marine Corps may not understand its significance. Some people who see the red stripe might not even think to ask what it means. •Symbolism is prevalent in Marine Corps culture, as it is in other culture groups. However, it takes observational skills to interpret. When you are in a foreign AO, you may notice symbols related to the different culture groups with whom you are interacting. •For example, a tattoo or piece of jewelry might identify an individual as belonging to a specific group, such as an ethnicity or profession. •A particular marking on a house may indicate allegiance to a specific religion. Symbols may sometimes reveal cultural change. If you notice symbols changing or more people using a particular symbol, this may be an indication that something is changing in the operating environment. OBSERVE Observation is the first step in the decision cycle. It is a search for information that is relative to the tactical situation. •Observation begins with the gathering and processing of information obtained through the senses. The sensory systems (i.e., sight, hearing, smell, touch, and taste) collect information from the environment and translate it into observations. •Perception is the process that the mind uses to organize the sensory information into an understandable interpretation of the environment. Our brains interpret sensory information based upon experience and a variety of other factors; therefore, our perceptions are not always a true representation of the environment. •It must be emphasized that this is not a passive step and requires an active effort to seek all of the available information by whatever means possible. ORIENT During orientation, the Marine uses information to form an awareness of the circumstances. As more information is received, perceptions are updated as needed. •Training and experience allows you to quickly and accurately perceive a situation since you require less detail to make a relationship between observations. •Orientation emphasizes the context in which events occur so you may facilitate your decisions and actions. •Orientation helps convert information into understanding. - Understanding leads to good decisions. Context Context is the background, environment, framework, setting, or situation surrounding an event or occurrence. As you orient your observations, consider the wider context. •Place: What are your surroundings? Think small to large—your immediate vicinity in respect to the extent of the world (e.g., an open air bazaar on the outskirts of Khor Angar, a town in the northern Obock Region of Djibouti, situated on the west coast of the Bab el Mandeb Strait, on the northeastern African coast across from Yemen). •Time: What time, day, or season is it? Consider time of day, day of week, month, season, and any culturally significant times (e.g., religious or national holiday). •Purpose: Why are you there? Why is the communication taking place? Inference An inference is a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and reasoning. Given that you are in a particular place at a specific time with a precise set of details you are observing, can you conclude or make sense of what you are seeing? •What do my observations, in context, suggest? •Do you have enough experience to identify a typical pattern of behavior and conduct to establish a baseline? •Do you recognize any deviations from typical behavior? Validation Validation is an attempt to ensure that your inference is founded on truth or fact. It is an attempt to confirm your understanding of what you see. Ask someone to interpret what you are observing. •Ask the question, "Have you seen the same thing in a similar context several times? Can you identify a pattern?" •Over time, you may be able to distinguish the baseline activities and patterns of the culture from what is out of the ordinary. Temper Temper refers to a person's emotional state. A person's emotional state can be inferred from nonverbal communication such as: •Yelling •Crying •Pacing •Smiling •Relaxing •Swearing Different cultures will assign various meaning to the behaviors above. Marines should familiarize themselves with the meanings the local population projects with their behavior. Intent Intent refers to a person's planned actions and the purpose for those actions. Intent can be inferred from: •Physical behavior that is more action-oriented such as running, hitting, carrying or drawing a weapon, and reaching for a purse, etc. •An individual's equipment or clothing (Consider if the person's clothing and belongings conform with their reason for being there?) Strategies to Employ Nonverbal Cues Ideally, Marines should try to emulate the local nonverbal communication techniques of the AO. •However, you may have difficulty adopting these nonverbal communication techniques and inadvertently send nonverbal cues to your counterparts that could damage rapport. •By understanding the cultural nonverbal cues, Marines can adopt certain strategies that will allow you to work near your limitations of comfort, maintain rapport, and convey your meaning. •For example, in a society where there is very little personal space during verbal communication, Marines may find that turning towards their counterpart at a slight angle can give them a sense of increased personal space without alienating the counterpart (i.e., making him think you are moving away from him). NATIONAL COMMAND AUTHORITY National Command Authority, or NCA, is a term used by the Department of Defense to refer to the ultimate lawful source of military orders. •The NCA consists of the President of the United States, as commander-in-chief, and the Secretary of Defense. •Constitutionally, the ultimate authority and responsibility for the national defense rests with the President. The Secretary of Defense is the President's principal assistant in all matters relating to the Department of Defense. •The President and the Secretary of Defense translate policy into national strategic military objectives. Origin of the Department of Defense The intent of the National Security Act and its amendments were to: •Increase civilian control of the armed forces to be consistent with Constitutional requirements. •Eliminate unnecessary duplication between the services. •Provide more efficient inter-service cooperation. •Provide a unified strategic direction of the armed forces. Mission of the Department of Defense The mission of the DoD is to: •Provide the military forces needed to deter war. •Protect the security of our country. OPERATIONAL AND SERVICE CHAINS OF COMMAND •The operational chain of command runs from the President, through the Secretary of Defense, directly to commanders of combatant commands. The operational chain of command is the hierarchy by which the President directs military activities. •The Service chain of command begins with the President, through the Secretary of Defense, to the three secretaries of the military departments—Army, Navy, and Air Force—to the four service leaders—Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps. The Service chain of command is tasked with the manning, training, and equipping of forces to be employed by the combatant commanders. COMMANDANT OF THE MARINE CORPS The Commandant of the Marine Corps, or the CMC, is responsible for the readiness of the Marine Corps including our administration, discipline, internal organization, training, requirements, and efficiency. The CMC: •Answers directly to the Secretary of the Navy in the performance, operation, and readiness of the Marine Corps •Provides ready, expeditionary forces to meet the operational requirements of the combatant commanders MARINE CORPS MISSION Historically, Marine Corps preparedness has been characterized by the phrase, "first to fight." The official mission of the U.S. Marine Corps was established in the National Security Act of 1947, amended in 1952. Marines are trained, organized, and equipped for: •Offensive amphibious employment •Employment as a general purpose, "force in readiness," to support national needs FUNCTIONS OF THE MARINE CORPS The Marine Corps, within the Department of the Navy, shall serve as an expeditionary force in readiness and perform the following specific functions: •Seize and defend advanced naval bases or lodgments (areas) to facilitate subsequent joint operations. •Provide close air support for ground forces. •Conduct land and air operations essential to the prosecution of a naval campaign or as directed. •Conduct complex expeditionary operations in the urban littorals (on or near shores) and other challenging environments. •Conduct amphibious operations, including engagement, crisis response, and power projection operations to assure access. The Marine Corps has primary responsibility for the development of amphibious doctrine, tactics, techniques, and equipment. •Conduct security and stability operations and assist with the initial establishment of a military government pending transfer of this responsibility to other authority. •Provide security detachments and units for service on armed vessels of the Navy, provide protection of naval property at naval stations and bases, provide security at designated U.S. embassies and consulates, and perform other such duties as the President or the Secretary of Defense may direct. These additional duties may not detract from or interfere with the operations for which the Marine Corps is primarily organized. •Organize Marine Corps aviation, as a collateral function, to participate as an integral component of naval aviation. •Provide Marines in support of the Department of State security program overseas. Conduct Military Engagement The ability of the Marine Corps to conduct military engagement is essential to building partner capability and capacity, forging relationships across cultural barriers, and promoting diplomatic access. •Sea-based military engagement facilitates interaction while treading lightly on the sovereignty of the partner-nations. •Forward posture is critical to providing effective engagement and ensuring rapid response to crises. Respond Rapidly to Crisis Whether a crisis is natural or manmade, crisis response operations alleviate or mitigate the impact of an incident or situation. The ability to rapidly project additional Marine Corps capabilities in response to a crisis requires: •Forward-postured forces •A high state of expeditionary readiness Project Power The Marine Corps forces leverage and contribute to a larger, "whole-of-government" system of projecting "smart" power across the range of military operations. Smart power is the ability to selectively apply soft and hard power in combinations appropriate to a given situation to achieve national objectives. •Soft power is the use of persuasive means, such as cultural affinity, diplomacy, economic interaction, and foreign assistance, to establish legitimacy and influence or attract others to align their policies, interests, or objectives with one's own. •Hard power is the use of military or economic coercion to influence the behavior of others. Power projection includes joint assured access operations from the sea, as enabled by littoral maneuver. Conduct Littoral Maneuver Naval forces are uniquely capable of conducting littoral maneuver, the ability to transition ready-to-fight combat forces from the sea to the shore to achieve a position of advantage over the enemy. Littoral maneuver may be used to deny adversaries sanctuary, destroy critical enemy capabilities, recover personnel or sensitive equipment, safeguard weapons of mass destruction or associated materials, seize lodgments for the introduction of additional joint or multinational forces, or cause an adversary to disperse his forces Counter Irregular Threats These operations involve military force, usually in combination with the other elements of power, in the affairs of another state whose government is unstable, inadequate, or unsatisfactory. •Military measures may not, by themselves, restore peace and order because the fundamental causes of unrest may be economic, political, or social. •Often these operations occur in response to crises under austere conditions. They are the modern manifestation of our small wars legacy. HEADQUARTERS, U.S. MARINE CORPS The Commandant presides over the daily activities of Headquarters, Marine Corps, which provides staff assistance to the Commandant by: •Preparing the Marine Corps for employment through recruiting, organizing, supplying, equipping, training, servicing, mobilizing, administering, and maintaining the Marine Corps •Investigating and reporting on the efficiency of the Marine Corps and its preparation to support military operations by combatant commanders •Preparing detailed instructions for the execution of approved plans and supervising the execution of those plans and instructions •Coordinating the actions of organizations of the Marine Corps •Performing other duties, not otherwise assigned by law, as may be prescribed by the Secretary of the Navy or the Commandant MARINE CORPS OPERATING FORCES -Marine Corps Forces: These forces consist of combat, combat support, and combat service support units that are normally task-organized as MAGTFs assigned to combatant commanders. Whether assigned to a combatant commander or retained under Service control, Marine Corps forces are apportioned to the geographic combatant commanders to plan for contingencies and are provided to these unified combatant commands when directed by the Secretary of Defense. -Marine Corps Reserves: •Ready Reserve: The Selected Marine Corps Reserve (SMCR) and the Individual Ready Reserve (IRR) •Retired Reserve: Reservists who are retired under various laws and regulations. Retired Reserves may be mobilized under conditions similar to those for Standby Reserve mobilization. •Standby Reserve: The Standby Reserve is comprised of Marines not in the Ready or Retired Reserve who are subject to recall to active duty in time of war or a national emergency as declared by Congress. -Security Forces: The Marine Corps Security Force Regiment provides armed antiterrorism and physical security trained forces to designated naval installations, vessels, or units. Fleet antiterrorism security team (FAST) companies provide fleet commanders with forward-deployed FAST platoons for responsive, short-term security augmentation of installations, ships, or vital naval and national assets when force protection conditions exceed the capabilities of the permanent security forces. -Special Activity Forces: Special activity forces provide security and services or perform other special duties for agencies other than the Department of the Navy. Assignment of the missions of these forces and the personnel to them are specified by the supported agency and approved by the Commandant. For example, detachments from the Marine Corps Embassy Security Group guard foreign service posts throughout the world. Marines belonging to these security guard detachments provide internal security services to selected Department of State embassies and consulates. TASK ORGANIZED Marine Corps forces are typically organized for operations by forming MAGTFs—balanced, air- ground, combined arms formations under a single commander. •The operational flexibility inherent in the MAGTF's design is the principal organization for all Marine Corps missions across the range of military operations. •Expeditionary by nature, MAGTFs vary in size and capability according to their assigned or likely missions and are specifically equipped for rapid deployment by air or sea. Elements of a MAGTF Command Element Ground Combat Element Aviation Combat Element Logistics Combat Element COMMAND ELEMENT The command element is the MAGTF headquarters. As with all other MAGTF elements, the command element task- organizes to provide the command and control capabilities necessary for effective planning, execution, and assessment of operations. Additionally, the command element can: •Exercise command and control within a joint force from the sea or ashore and act as a joint task force headquarters core element. •Include additional command and control and intelligence capabilities from national and theater assets, force reconnaissance assets, signals intelligence capabilities from the radio battalion, and a force fires coordination center. •Employ additional major subordinate commands, such as the force artillery headquarters, naval construction regiments, or Army maneuver or engineering units. GROUND COMBAT ELEMENT (GCE) The GCE task-organizes to conduct ground operations in support of the MAGTF's mission. The GCE: •Usually forms around an infantry organization reinforced with artillery, reconnaissance, light armored reconnaissance, assault amphibian, tank, and combat engineer forces •Can vary in size and composition—from a rifle platoon to one or more divisions •Is the only MAGTF element that can seize and occupy terrain AVIATION COMBAT ELEMENT (ACE) The ACE task-organizes to conduct air operations, project combat power, and contribute to battlespace dominance in support of the MAGTF's mission by performing some or all of the following six functions of Marine aviation: •Antiair warfare •Assault support •Electronic warfare •Offensive air support •Air reconnaissance •Control of aircraft and missiles The ACE: •Consists of an aviation headquarters with air control agencies, aircraft squadrons or groups, and logistic units •Can vary in size and composition from a small aviation detachment of specifically required aircraft to one or more Marine aircraft wings LOGISTICS COMBAT ELEMENT (LCE) The LCE task-organizes to provide all functions of tactical logistics necessary to support the continued readiness and sustainability of the MAGTF. The LCE performs some or all six functions of tactical logistics: •Supply •Maintenance •Transportation •Health services •General engineering •Other services which include legal, exchange, food, disbursing, postal, billeting, religious, mortuary, and morale and recreation services The LCE: •May vary in size and composition from a support detachment up to one or more logistic groups •Operates from sea bases or from expeditionary bases established ashore MARINE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE (MEF) The MEFs provide the structure and capabilities that comprise the largest groupings of Marine Corps operating forces. •MEFs are capable of conducting and sustaining expeditionary operations in any geographic environment. •In addition to their warfighting role, MEFs routinely task-organize subordinate units into smaller MAGTFs or other formations to support the geographic combatant commander's ongoing engagement and episodic crisis response requirements. MARINE EXPEDITIONARY BRIGADE (MEB) The MEB is the centerpiece of our expeditionary force-in-readiness, prepared for immediate, effective employment in any type of crisis or conflict. The MEB can: •Respond to a full range of crises and contingencies •Serve as an enabler for joint and combined forces •Deploy via: - Amphibious task force - Maritime prepositioning squadron - Strategic air lift MARINE EXPEDITIONARY UNIT (MEU) MEUs are forward-deployed, embarked aboard Navy amphibious ready groups. The ARG/MEUs provide continuous, forward naval presence in key regions to conduct steady-state security cooperation, military engagement, and deterrence, as well as immediate response to episodic crises and contingencies. MEUs are on-scene, on-call, immediately employable and are capable of conducting conventional and select maritime special purpose missions: •Over the horizon •By surface and air •From the sea •Under adverse weather conditions SPECIAL PURPOSE MARINE-AIR GROUND TASK FORCE (SP-MAGTF) Typically formed to support combatant commander requirements. These organizations are tailored appropriately to conduct security cooperation activities with partner nations to develop interoperability, facilitate access, build defense and security relationships, gain regional understanding, and position for immediate response to episodic crises. Recent SP-MAGTFs include: •SP-MAGTF Katrina (2005) •SP-MAGTF Unified Assistance (2005) •SP-MAGTF Haiti (2010) •SP-MAGTF Tomodachi (2011) •SP-MAGTF Africa (2011-present) •SP-MAGTF Crisis Response (2013-present)