UNIT 12B-TRANSMISSION AND
PREVENTION
Infectious diseases can be transmitted through contact with an infected person, animal,
or object; contact with a contaminated environment; or consumption of contaminated
food or water. Contact transmission occurs when an infected person or animal
encounters another person or animal, and the disease is spread through direct contact
with body fluids, such as saliva, mucus, blood, or faeces. Indirect contact transmission
occurs when an infected person or animal encounters an object or surface that has been
contaminated with the disease-causing organism and then another person or animal
touches the object or surface and acquires the infection. Vector-borne disease
transmission occurs when an infected animal, such as a mosquito, tick, or flea, carries a
disease-causing organism and transmits it to humans or other animals through a bite.
Lastly, food and waterborne transmission occurs when an infected person or animal
contaminates food or water with the disease-causing organism, which is then consumed
by another person or animal
Infectious diseases can be prevented from spreading by following a few key steps:
1. Wash your hands with soap and water often, especially before eating and after using
the restroom.
2. Avoid close contact with people who are sick.
3. Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when you cough or sneeze. If you do not
have a tissue, cough or sneeze into your elbow or shoulder.
4. Stay home if you are sick and avoid contact with others.
,5. Disinfect surfaces and objects that may be contaminated with germs.
6. Get vaccinated against preventable illnesses.
7. Follow travel health advice if you are travelling abroad.
8. Practice safe sex.
9. Avoid sharing personal items such as eating utensils, toothbrushes, and razors.
10. Do not share needles or other drug paraphernalia.
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19)
Covid-19 is primarily spread from person to person through close contact with an
infected individual, including through respiratory droplets produced when an infected
person sneezes, coughs, talks, or sings. These droplets can be inhaled directly into the
lungs of another person or can land on nearby surfaces, such as door handles,
countertops, or other objects. A person can then become infected by touching these
surfaces and then touching their own eyes, nose, or mouth.
In addition to close contact, COVID-19 can also be spread through contact with
contaminated surfaces or objects. This is known as fomite transmission and occurs
when an infected person touches a surface or object and then someone else touches the
same surface or object, and then touches their face.
COVID-19 can also be spread through aerosol transmission, which occurs when an
infected person produces tiny droplets that remain suspended in the air and are then
inhaled by another person. This can happen in enclosed areas with poor ventilation,
such as crowded indoor spaces or health care settings.
Finally, Covid-19 can spread through contact with faecal matter. This can occur when
an infected person has not properly washed their hands after using the bathroom and
then touches another
1. Practice good hygiene: Wash your hands often with soap and water for at least 20
seconds or use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer. Avoid touching your eyes, nose, and
mouth.
2. Practice social distancing: Stay at least 6 feet away from other people when in public
and wear a face covering when out in public.
3. Avoid large gatherings: Avoid attending large events and gatherings with people
outside of your household.
4. Clean and disinfect surfaces: Clean and disinfect surfaces regularly, such as
countertops, doorknobs, light switches, and other high-touch surfaces.
5. Stay home when you are sick: If you are feeling ill, stay home and self-isolate. Avoid
close contact with other people and call your doctor for advice.
6. Get tested: If you suspect you may have been exposed to Covid-19, get tested and
follow your doctor’s instructions.
,7. Wear a face covering: Wear a cloth face covering when out in public to help slow the
spread of the virus.
8. Get vaccinated: Get vaccinated when available. This will help protect you and those
around you from getting the virus.
Indirect Transmission methods for Covid-19 are:
Sneezing: If you sneeze on someone, the virus can enter through their mouth
ages of nostrils into their respiratory system. If you sneeze on a table and
someone touches it, they become a host.
Coughing: you can cough on food or an object that someone will eat of touch.
The virus will get into the lymphatic and digestive systems of the affected
person. To avoid, clean surfaces and wash hands regularly.
PIGWORM
This a parasite carried by pigs that mile pigs and pig consume sick. The parasite is in the
pork, which is consumed by people. The worms lay egg imide the pigs. People are
infected when they swallow.
To avoid, cook at extremely high heat, this to kill the parasite (Ascaris scum).
Accidentally swallowing or breathing in pinworm eggs causes a pinworm infection. The
tiny (microscopic) eggs can be carried to your mouth by contaminated food, drink, or
your fingers. Once swallowed, the eggs hatch in the intestines and mature into adult
worms within a few weeks.
Female pinworms move to the anal area to lay their eggs, which often results in anal
itching. When you scratch the itchy area, the eggs cling to your fingers and get under
your fingernails. The eggs then get transferred to other surfaces, such as toys, bedding,
or toilet seats. The eggs can also be transferred from contaminated fingers to food,
liquids, clothes, or other people.
SALMONELLA
This disease is usually transmitted by eating food contaminated with animal faeces.
Examples of this can be eggs or raw or unpasteurized milk and other dairy products.
Additionally, raw, or undercooked meat and poultry products such as chicken breasts,
beef and pork may also contain salmonella.
,To avoid, cook food at elevated temperatures and control the milk that you consume
(check expiry date)
Additionally, a sample of food from different animals can be tested for salmonella meat
and poultry products such as chicken breast, beef and pork may also contain salmonella.
Diagnosing Salmonella infection requires testing a specimen (sample), such as stool
(poop) or blood. Testing can help guide treatment decisions. Infection is diagnosed
when a laboratory test detects Salmonella bacteria in stool, body tissue, or fluids.
Improperly handled food
Many foods become contaminated when prepared by people who do not wash their
hands thoroughly after using the toilet or changing a diaper or after handling
contaminated food.
Infected surfaces
Infection can also occur if people touch something that is contaminated and then put
their fingers in their mouths.
Infected pets and other animals
Animals and pets, especially birds and reptiles, may carry salmonella bacteria on their
feathers, fur, or skin or in their faeces. Some pet foods may be contaminated with
salmonella and can infect animals.
METHODS OF TRANSMISSION
DIRECT
Rabies:
This disease is caused via lyssavirus. This virus can be found in animals, most
commonly dogs and rabbits. The most common method of thing mission is biting. The
virus enters the body through the skin. To avoid this, is important to keep animals with
Rabies in lockdown. Rabies: The virus enters the body through a bite or other wound,
typically on the face or hands. Over several days, the virus spreads throughout the body,
infecting the central nervous system.
The virus can spread to other animals and humans through a bite, or if the saliva of an infected
animal meets a person’s mucous membrane or an open wound. Once the virus is contracted, it
progresses over time in a series of stages.
,1. Prodromal stage: This is the first stage of rabies and is characterized by the onset of flu-like
symptoms such as fever, headache, generalized weakness and malaise. The patient may also
experience anxiety, confusion, agitation, and insomnia.
2. Excitative stage: This is the second stage of rabies and is characterized by violent
movements, hypersensitivity to touch and sound, confusion and aggression.
3. Paralysis stage: This is the third stage of rabies and is characterized by paralysis of the
muscles of the face, throat, and limbs, resulting in difficulty talking, swallowing, and breathing.
4. Coma stage: This is the fourth stage of rabies and is characterized by a deep coma and
eventually death.
5. Death stage: This is the fifth and final stage of rabies and is characterized by death. It is
usually caused by respiratory failure or cardiovascular collapse.
Covid 19:
Human to human, kissing, hugging, or shaking hands with someone are directs methods
of transmission for the Sars-Cove 2 virus. The virus moves from one skin to the other or
from the saliva of one person to the other.
Covid-19 is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which is spread through contact with an
infected person or by respiratory droplets. The virus can travel through the blood stream
and into the lymph nodes, where it can cause inflammation. This inflammation can lead
to swollen lymph nodes and can cause lymphadenitis, which is a condition where the
lymph nodes become enlarged and tender. In some cases, the lymph nodes may become
infected, leading to an infection called lymphadenitis.
Covid-19 affects the circulatory system by causing inflammation and damage to the
walls of the blood vessels. This can lead to clotting and a decrease in oxygen-rich blood
delivered throughout the body. This can cause a decrease in organ function, including
the heart, and can even lead to stroke or a heart attack. In addition, Covid-19 has been
linked to an increased risk of heart failure and other cardiovascular complications.
HIV
Thid is a sexually transmitted diseases, via semen and vaginal secretions during sexual
activity.
-Man--> male reproductive system-->penis(sperm)--> vagina--> female reproductive
system--> woman (host)
-Woman-->female reproductive system-->vagina (secretions containing HIV) -->penis
(or other masculine entrances) --> Man
,HIV is transmitted through contact with certain bodily fluids from an infected person, such as
blood, semen, pre-seminal fluid, rectal fluids, vaginal fluids, and breast milk. The most
common modes of transmission are through sexual contact, sharing of needles and syringes,
and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. It is also possible to
become infected through transfusions of infected blood, though this is now rare in developed
countries due to stringent testing of the blood supply. HIV is not transmitted through the air,
water, or through casual contact such as hugging, shaking hands, or sharing dishes or utensils.
PRACTICAL 1
Equipment list:
UV glow gel
UV light (395 mm)
Table
Whiteboard pen
METHOD
Method
Rub gel on hands
Take photo under UV light
Place hand on bench 3 times
Photograph prints on bench using UV light -
If print is still visible repeat step 3&4
How many times doe handprint transfer
Exp3
Rub gel on hand
Take a photo
Hand wash using NH procedure
Take procedure
Exp1
Rub gel on hands
Take a photo
Wipe with tissue
Photo hands
Repeat three onwards
,PRACTICAL 2
Equipment list:
Beaker (100 ml)
Pipette
Distilled water
Bromophenol blue indicator
METHOD
In a beaker, pour an anonymous solution
Exchange substances with others, depending on the numbers carried by each subject.
Odd numbers exchange first.
Add iodine solution to the beakers and evaluate the solution that change colour. If it has
changed, the beaker contained the pathogen.
Record your exchanges (who you give to and who you take from) and work out who
infected the rest.
My number: 7
Given Taken
to from
4 5
6 3
8 1
1 10
9 6
12 2
I received from 5, 3, 1 and 10; 2 and 7 have the infection
Green: 9, 7, 8, 6, 4, 2, 12
,Blue: 1,10,11,3,5
Direct contact is one of the main ways that COVID-19 is spread from person to person.
This type of contact involves touching an infected person or an object that has been
contaminated with the virus, such as a doorknob, contaminated surface, or a respiratory
droplet from an infected person’s sneeze or cough. When someone who has the virus
touches another person, the virus can be passed on. This is why it is so important to
practice good hygiene, such as washing hands regularly, covering coughs and sneezes,
avoiding touching the face, and avoiding close contact with people who are ill. In
addition to person-to-person contact, COVID-19 can also be spread from animals to
people or from animal waste to people. According to the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), there have been reported cases of COVID-19 in people who
have had contact with animals, such as cats and dogs, that may have been infected with
the virus. The CDC recommends that people wash their hands thoroughly after handling
animals or their waste and avoid contact with animals that are ill or showing signs of
respiratory illness. The virus can also spread from animal waste to people if it is not
disposed of properly. This can happen if animal waste is left in public places, such as
parks, where people can meet it. To help prevent this, the CDC recommends that people
dispose of animal waste in sealed bags and dispose of it in a trash can with a lid. The
use of prophylaxis medication to stop the spread of COVID-19 is still being studied and
debated. While there are some potential benefits to the use of antibiotics, antivirals, and
antimalarial medications, there is still much that is unknown about their effectiveness in
treating this virus. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses and therefore will not be
effective in treating COVID-19. Antiviral medications may have some benefit, but they
are not yet proven to be effective. Antimalarial medications, such as
hydroxychloroquine, have been studied and show promise in treating COVID-19.
However, the studies are still inconclusive, and more research is needed. In addition, the
use of prophylaxis medication can have potential side effects, such as increased risk of
infection, increased susceptibility to other illnesses, and drug. Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) is one of the most effective ways to stop the spread of COVID-19.
Wearing a face covering, such as a cloth face mask, is one of the best ways to protect
yourself and those around you from the virus. Other PPE products that can help stop the
spread of COVID-19 include gloves, face shields, and gowns. All these items, when
used correctly, can help reduce the risk of person-to-person transmission of the virus.
The use of PPE is most effective when combined with other preventative measures,
such as social distancing, hand hygiene, and avoiding contact with people who are sick.
Wearing PPE should not be seen as a substitute for these other measures, but rather as
an additional layer of protection in preventing the spread of the virus. Additionally, PPE
should be used in combination with other strategies, such as contact tracing, to reduce
transmission. Overall, the use of PPE is an important part of any strategy to reduce the
spread of COVID-19. It should be used in combination with other preventative
measures, such as social distancing and hand hygiene, to ensure maximum protection.
,1. Face Mask: - Wear it by looping the elastic bands around the ears and ensuring it
covers your nose and mouth. – To remove, untie the elastic bands and pull the mask
away from your face.
2. Eye Protection: - Wear it by placing it over your eyes and securing it with an elastic
band around the back of your head. – To remove, pull the elastic band away from the
back of your head and lift the goggles away from your eyes.
3. Disposable Gloves: - Wear them by pulling them on over your hands and ensuring
that they fit snugly. – To remove, gently peel them off from the inside out, being careful
not to touch the outside of the gloves.
4. Face Shield: - Wear it by placing it over your forehead and around your face, with the
edge of the shield resting on your shoulders. – To remove, lift it away from your
forehead and shoulders.
The importance of changing human behaviours to reduce the spread of COVID 19
cannot be overstated. Examples of such behaviours include safe sex, using mosquito
nets, and frequent hand washing. Safe sex is an important behaviour to practice during
the COVID 19 pandemic. This includes using condoms or other barriers when engaging
in sexual activity, avoiding contact with saliva and other body fluids, and avoiding
contact with multiple partners. These measures help reduce the risk of transmission of
the virus. Using mosquito nets is a key behaviour to reduce the spread of COVID 19.
Mosquitoes can spread other viruses and can be a vector for the disease. By using
mosquito nets, individuals can reduce their risk of contracting the virus. Hand washing
is another important behaviour to adopt during the COVID 19 pandemic. It is essential
to thoroughly wash hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds each time after
using the toilet, touching surfaces, and before eating. This helps reduce the risk of
transmission of the virus. Overall, these behaviours can help reduce the spread of
COVID 19 and should be adopted to protect oneself and others. Environmental methods
to reduce the spread of COVID-19 include the following:
1. No open water sources: This involves the closure of public swimming pools, hot
tubs, and other open water sources to prevent the spread of the virus. This can be
implemented using signage and other physical barriers.
2. Use of chemical spray: This involves the use of chemical disinfectants, such as
chlorine and hydrogen peroxide, to reduce the spread of the virus. These chemicals can
be sprayed on surfaces and objects to reduce virus transmission.
3. Social distancing: This involves the practice of keeping a physical distance of at least
six feet between individuals to reduce the spread of the virus. This can be implemented
using signs and physical barriers, as well as by encouraging individuals to stay home as
much as possible.
, 4. Handwashing: This involves the practice of frequently washing your hands with soap
and water for at least 20 seconds to reduce the spread of the virus. This can be
implemented with signage and other physical reminders.
5. Mask wearing: This involves the practice of wearing a face mask when in public to
prevent the spread of the virus. This can be implemented using signage and other
physical reminders.
Overall, these environmental methods can be effective in reducing the spread of
COVID-19 if implemented correctly. However, it is important to note that these
methods should be used in conjunction with other measures, such as social distancing
and handwashing, to effectively reduce the spread of the virus. Vaccination is a vital
tool in the effort to contain and prevent the spread of COVID 19. By providing
protection against the virus, it helps to reduce the risk of infection, hospitalisation, and
death from the virus. Vaccination programmes have been developed to ensure that
people can be effectively immunised against the virus. Vaccines can be divided into
three main types, modified, attenuated and live antigens. Modified vaccines, also known
as subunit vaccines, are made using parts of the virus that have been modified or
inactivated. These vaccines are designed to stimulate an immune response without
causing an infection. Attenuated vaccines are made using weakened versions of the
virus, which are designed to stimulate the body’s immune response without causing an
infection. Live antigen vaccines are made using a version of the virus that is modified to
be safe and to stimulate an immune response. All three types of vaccines are designed to
stimulate the body’s immune system to produce antibodies that will help protect against
future infections. In addition to stimulating the body’s immune response, vaccination
programmes can also help to create herd immunity. Herd immunity occurs when a large
enough portion of the population is immunised against a disease, so that those who have
not been immunised are less likely to meet the disease. This can help to reduce the
spread of the disease and protect those who are not able to be immunised, such as those
with weakened immune systems. Overall, vaccination is an effective tool for preventing
the spread of COVID 19. Vaccines can provide protection against the virus and can help
to create herd immunity, reducing the risk of infection, hospitalisation, and death from
the virus. List and explain, in detail the methods used by AstraZeneca Moderna and
Pfizer to help reduce the spread of COVID 19
1. Vaccine Development: AstraZeneca, Moderna, and Pfizer have worked together to
develop and manufacture vaccines for the prevention of COVID-19. The three
companies are using their own respective technologies to develop and test vaccines, as
well as collaborate with other companies to expand their vaccine development efforts.
AstraZeneca has developed a vaccine using a weakened version of a common cold
virus, which carries the genetic code of the COVID-19 virus. Moderna has developed a
vaccine using messenger RNA (mRNA) technology. Pfizer has developed a vaccine
using a novel mRNA technology.
PREVENTION
Infectious diseases can be transmitted through contact with an infected person, animal,
or object; contact with a contaminated environment; or consumption of contaminated
food or water. Contact transmission occurs when an infected person or animal
encounters another person or animal, and the disease is spread through direct contact
with body fluids, such as saliva, mucus, blood, or faeces. Indirect contact transmission
occurs when an infected person or animal encounters an object or surface that has been
contaminated with the disease-causing organism and then another person or animal
touches the object or surface and acquires the infection. Vector-borne disease
transmission occurs when an infected animal, such as a mosquito, tick, or flea, carries a
disease-causing organism and transmits it to humans or other animals through a bite.
Lastly, food and waterborne transmission occurs when an infected person or animal
contaminates food or water with the disease-causing organism, which is then consumed
by another person or animal
Infectious diseases can be prevented from spreading by following a few key steps:
1. Wash your hands with soap and water often, especially before eating and after using
the restroom.
2. Avoid close contact with people who are sick.
3. Cover your mouth and nose with a tissue when you cough or sneeze. If you do not
have a tissue, cough or sneeze into your elbow or shoulder.
4. Stay home if you are sick and avoid contact with others.
,5. Disinfect surfaces and objects that may be contaminated with germs.
6. Get vaccinated against preventable illnesses.
7. Follow travel health advice if you are travelling abroad.
8. Practice safe sex.
9. Avoid sharing personal items such as eating utensils, toothbrushes, and razors.
10. Do not share needles or other drug paraphernalia.
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19)
Covid-19 is primarily spread from person to person through close contact with an
infected individual, including through respiratory droplets produced when an infected
person sneezes, coughs, talks, or sings. These droplets can be inhaled directly into the
lungs of another person or can land on nearby surfaces, such as door handles,
countertops, or other objects. A person can then become infected by touching these
surfaces and then touching their own eyes, nose, or mouth.
In addition to close contact, COVID-19 can also be spread through contact with
contaminated surfaces or objects. This is known as fomite transmission and occurs
when an infected person touches a surface or object and then someone else touches the
same surface or object, and then touches their face.
COVID-19 can also be spread through aerosol transmission, which occurs when an
infected person produces tiny droplets that remain suspended in the air and are then
inhaled by another person. This can happen in enclosed areas with poor ventilation,
such as crowded indoor spaces or health care settings.
Finally, Covid-19 can spread through contact with faecal matter. This can occur when
an infected person has not properly washed their hands after using the bathroom and
then touches another
1. Practice good hygiene: Wash your hands often with soap and water for at least 20
seconds or use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer. Avoid touching your eyes, nose, and
mouth.
2. Practice social distancing: Stay at least 6 feet away from other people when in public
and wear a face covering when out in public.
3. Avoid large gatherings: Avoid attending large events and gatherings with people
outside of your household.
4. Clean and disinfect surfaces: Clean and disinfect surfaces regularly, such as
countertops, doorknobs, light switches, and other high-touch surfaces.
5. Stay home when you are sick: If you are feeling ill, stay home and self-isolate. Avoid
close contact with other people and call your doctor for advice.
6. Get tested: If you suspect you may have been exposed to Covid-19, get tested and
follow your doctor’s instructions.
,7. Wear a face covering: Wear a cloth face covering when out in public to help slow the
spread of the virus.
8. Get vaccinated: Get vaccinated when available. This will help protect you and those
around you from getting the virus.
Indirect Transmission methods for Covid-19 are:
Sneezing: If you sneeze on someone, the virus can enter through their mouth
ages of nostrils into their respiratory system. If you sneeze on a table and
someone touches it, they become a host.
Coughing: you can cough on food or an object that someone will eat of touch.
The virus will get into the lymphatic and digestive systems of the affected
person. To avoid, clean surfaces and wash hands regularly.
PIGWORM
This a parasite carried by pigs that mile pigs and pig consume sick. The parasite is in the
pork, which is consumed by people. The worms lay egg imide the pigs. People are
infected when they swallow.
To avoid, cook at extremely high heat, this to kill the parasite (Ascaris scum).
Accidentally swallowing or breathing in pinworm eggs causes a pinworm infection. The
tiny (microscopic) eggs can be carried to your mouth by contaminated food, drink, or
your fingers. Once swallowed, the eggs hatch in the intestines and mature into adult
worms within a few weeks.
Female pinworms move to the anal area to lay their eggs, which often results in anal
itching. When you scratch the itchy area, the eggs cling to your fingers and get under
your fingernails. The eggs then get transferred to other surfaces, such as toys, bedding,
or toilet seats. The eggs can also be transferred from contaminated fingers to food,
liquids, clothes, or other people.
SALMONELLA
This disease is usually transmitted by eating food contaminated with animal faeces.
Examples of this can be eggs or raw or unpasteurized milk and other dairy products.
Additionally, raw, or undercooked meat and poultry products such as chicken breasts,
beef and pork may also contain salmonella.
,To avoid, cook food at elevated temperatures and control the milk that you consume
(check expiry date)
Additionally, a sample of food from different animals can be tested for salmonella meat
and poultry products such as chicken breast, beef and pork may also contain salmonella.
Diagnosing Salmonella infection requires testing a specimen (sample), such as stool
(poop) or blood. Testing can help guide treatment decisions. Infection is diagnosed
when a laboratory test detects Salmonella bacteria in stool, body tissue, or fluids.
Improperly handled food
Many foods become contaminated when prepared by people who do not wash their
hands thoroughly after using the toilet or changing a diaper or after handling
contaminated food.
Infected surfaces
Infection can also occur if people touch something that is contaminated and then put
their fingers in their mouths.
Infected pets and other animals
Animals and pets, especially birds and reptiles, may carry salmonella bacteria on their
feathers, fur, or skin or in their faeces. Some pet foods may be contaminated with
salmonella and can infect animals.
METHODS OF TRANSMISSION
DIRECT
Rabies:
This disease is caused via lyssavirus. This virus can be found in animals, most
commonly dogs and rabbits. The most common method of thing mission is biting. The
virus enters the body through the skin. To avoid this, is important to keep animals with
Rabies in lockdown. Rabies: The virus enters the body through a bite or other wound,
typically on the face or hands. Over several days, the virus spreads throughout the body,
infecting the central nervous system.
The virus can spread to other animals and humans through a bite, or if the saliva of an infected
animal meets a person’s mucous membrane or an open wound. Once the virus is contracted, it
progresses over time in a series of stages.
,1. Prodromal stage: This is the first stage of rabies and is characterized by the onset of flu-like
symptoms such as fever, headache, generalized weakness and malaise. The patient may also
experience anxiety, confusion, agitation, and insomnia.
2. Excitative stage: This is the second stage of rabies and is characterized by violent
movements, hypersensitivity to touch and sound, confusion and aggression.
3. Paralysis stage: This is the third stage of rabies and is characterized by paralysis of the
muscles of the face, throat, and limbs, resulting in difficulty talking, swallowing, and breathing.
4. Coma stage: This is the fourth stage of rabies and is characterized by a deep coma and
eventually death.
5. Death stage: This is the fifth and final stage of rabies and is characterized by death. It is
usually caused by respiratory failure or cardiovascular collapse.
Covid 19:
Human to human, kissing, hugging, or shaking hands with someone are directs methods
of transmission for the Sars-Cove 2 virus. The virus moves from one skin to the other or
from the saliva of one person to the other.
Covid-19 is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which is spread through contact with an
infected person or by respiratory droplets. The virus can travel through the blood stream
and into the lymph nodes, where it can cause inflammation. This inflammation can lead
to swollen lymph nodes and can cause lymphadenitis, which is a condition where the
lymph nodes become enlarged and tender. In some cases, the lymph nodes may become
infected, leading to an infection called lymphadenitis.
Covid-19 affects the circulatory system by causing inflammation and damage to the
walls of the blood vessels. This can lead to clotting and a decrease in oxygen-rich blood
delivered throughout the body. This can cause a decrease in organ function, including
the heart, and can even lead to stroke or a heart attack. In addition, Covid-19 has been
linked to an increased risk of heart failure and other cardiovascular complications.
HIV
Thid is a sexually transmitted diseases, via semen and vaginal secretions during sexual
activity.
-Man--> male reproductive system-->penis(sperm)--> vagina--> female reproductive
system--> woman (host)
-Woman-->female reproductive system-->vagina (secretions containing HIV) -->penis
(or other masculine entrances) --> Man
,HIV is transmitted through contact with certain bodily fluids from an infected person, such as
blood, semen, pre-seminal fluid, rectal fluids, vaginal fluids, and breast milk. The most
common modes of transmission are through sexual contact, sharing of needles and syringes,
and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding. It is also possible to
become infected through transfusions of infected blood, though this is now rare in developed
countries due to stringent testing of the blood supply. HIV is not transmitted through the air,
water, or through casual contact such as hugging, shaking hands, or sharing dishes or utensils.
PRACTICAL 1
Equipment list:
UV glow gel
UV light (395 mm)
Table
Whiteboard pen
METHOD
Method
Rub gel on hands
Take photo under UV light
Place hand on bench 3 times
Photograph prints on bench using UV light -
If print is still visible repeat step 3&4
How many times doe handprint transfer
Exp3
Rub gel on hand
Take a photo
Hand wash using NH procedure
Take procedure
Exp1
Rub gel on hands
Take a photo
Wipe with tissue
Photo hands
Repeat three onwards
,PRACTICAL 2
Equipment list:
Beaker (100 ml)
Pipette
Distilled water
Bromophenol blue indicator
METHOD
In a beaker, pour an anonymous solution
Exchange substances with others, depending on the numbers carried by each subject.
Odd numbers exchange first.
Add iodine solution to the beakers and evaluate the solution that change colour. If it has
changed, the beaker contained the pathogen.
Record your exchanges (who you give to and who you take from) and work out who
infected the rest.
My number: 7
Given Taken
to from
4 5
6 3
8 1
1 10
9 6
12 2
I received from 5, 3, 1 and 10; 2 and 7 have the infection
Green: 9, 7, 8, 6, 4, 2, 12
,Blue: 1,10,11,3,5
Direct contact is one of the main ways that COVID-19 is spread from person to person.
This type of contact involves touching an infected person or an object that has been
contaminated with the virus, such as a doorknob, contaminated surface, or a respiratory
droplet from an infected person’s sneeze or cough. When someone who has the virus
touches another person, the virus can be passed on. This is why it is so important to
practice good hygiene, such as washing hands regularly, covering coughs and sneezes,
avoiding touching the face, and avoiding close contact with people who are ill. In
addition to person-to-person contact, COVID-19 can also be spread from animals to
people or from animal waste to people. According to the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), there have been reported cases of COVID-19 in people who
have had contact with animals, such as cats and dogs, that may have been infected with
the virus. The CDC recommends that people wash their hands thoroughly after handling
animals or their waste and avoid contact with animals that are ill or showing signs of
respiratory illness. The virus can also spread from animal waste to people if it is not
disposed of properly. This can happen if animal waste is left in public places, such as
parks, where people can meet it. To help prevent this, the CDC recommends that people
dispose of animal waste in sealed bags and dispose of it in a trash can with a lid. The
use of prophylaxis medication to stop the spread of COVID-19 is still being studied and
debated. While there are some potential benefits to the use of antibiotics, antivirals, and
antimalarial medications, there is still much that is unknown about their effectiveness in
treating this virus. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses and therefore will not be
effective in treating COVID-19. Antiviral medications may have some benefit, but they
are not yet proven to be effective. Antimalarial medications, such as
hydroxychloroquine, have been studied and show promise in treating COVID-19.
However, the studies are still inconclusive, and more research is needed. In addition, the
use of prophylaxis medication can have potential side effects, such as increased risk of
infection, increased susceptibility to other illnesses, and drug. Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) is one of the most effective ways to stop the spread of COVID-19.
Wearing a face covering, such as a cloth face mask, is one of the best ways to protect
yourself and those around you from the virus. Other PPE products that can help stop the
spread of COVID-19 include gloves, face shields, and gowns. All these items, when
used correctly, can help reduce the risk of person-to-person transmission of the virus.
The use of PPE is most effective when combined with other preventative measures,
such as social distancing, hand hygiene, and avoiding contact with people who are sick.
Wearing PPE should not be seen as a substitute for these other measures, but rather as
an additional layer of protection in preventing the spread of the virus. Additionally, PPE
should be used in combination with other strategies, such as contact tracing, to reduce
transmission. Overall, the use of PPE is an important part of any strategy to reduce the
spread of COVID-19. It should be used in combination with other preventative
measures, such as social distancing and hand hygiene, to ensure maximum protection.
,1. Face Mask: - Wear it by looping the elastic bands around the ears and ensuring it
covers your nose and mouth. – To remove, untie the elastic bands and pull the mask
away from your face.
2. Eye Protection: - Wear it by placing it over your eyes and securing it with an elastic
band around the back of your head. – To remove, pull the elastic band away from the
back of your head and lift the goggles away from your eyes.
3. Disposable Gloves: - Wear them by pulling them on over your hands and ensuring
that they fit snugly. – To remove, gently peel them off from the inside out, being careful
not to touch the outside of the gloves.
4. Face Shield: - Wear it by placing it over your forehead and around your face, with the
edge of the shield resting on your shoulders. – To remove, lift it away from your
forehead and shoulders.
The importance of changing human behaviours to reduce the spread of COVID 19
cannot be overstated. Examples of such behaviours include safe sex, using mosquito
nets, and frequent hand washing. Safe sex is an important behaviour to practice during
the COVID 19 pandemic. This includes using condoms or other barriers when engaging
in sexual activity, avoiding contact with saliva and other body fluids, and avoiding
contact with multiple partners. These measures help reduce the risk of transmission of
the virus. Using mosquito nets is a key behaviour to reduce the spread of COVID 19.
Mosquitoes can spread other viruses and can be a vector for the disease. By using
mosquito nets, individuals can reduce their risk of contracting the virus. Hand washing
is another important behaviour to adopt during the COVID 19 pandemic. It is essential
to thoroughly wash hands with soap and water for at least 20 seconds each time after
using the toilet, touching surfaces, and before eating. This helps reduce the risk of
transmission of the virus. Overall, these behaviours can help reduce the spread of
COVID 19 and should be adopted to protect oneself and others. Environmental methods
to reduce the spread of COVID-19 include the following:
1. No open water sources: This involves the closure of public swimming pools, hot
tubs, and other open water sources to prevent the spread of the virus. This can be
implemented using signage and other physical barriers.
2. Use of chemical spray: This involves the use of chemical disinfectants, such as
chlorine and hydrogen peroxide, to reduce the spread of the virus. These chemicals can
be sprayed on surfaces and objects to reduce virus transmission.
3. Social distancing: This involves the practice of keeping a physical distance of at least
six feet between individuals to reduce the spread of the virus. This can be implemented
using signs and physical barriers, as well as by encouraging individuals to stay home as
much as possible.
, 4. Handwashing: This involves the practice of frequently washing your hands with soap
and water for at least 20 seconds to reduce the spread of the virus. This can be
implemented with signage and other physical reminders.
5. Mask wearing: This involves the practice of wearing a face mask when in public to
prevent the spread of the virus. This can be implemented using signage and other
physical reminders.
Overall, these environmental methods can be effective in reducing the spread of
COVID-19 if implemented correctly. However, it is important to note that these
methods should be used in conjunction with other measures, such as social distancing
and handwashing, to effectively reduce the spread of the virus. Vaccination is a vital
tool in the effort to contain and prevent the spread of COVID 19. By providing
protection against the virus, it helps to reduce the risk of infection, hospitalisation, and
death from the virus. Vaccination programmes have been developed to ensure that
people can be effectively immunised against the virus. Vaccines can be divided into
three main types, modified, attenuated and live antigens. Modified vaccines, also known
as subunit vaccines, are made using parts of the virus that have been modified or
inactivated. These vaccines are designed to stimulate an immune response without
causing an infection. Attenuated vaccines are made using weakened versions of the
virus, which are designed to stimulate the body’s immune response without causing an
infection. Live antigen vaccines are made using a version of the virus that is modified to
be safe and to stimulate an immune response. All three types of vaccines are designed to
stimulate the body’s immune system to produce antibodies that will help protect against
future infections. In addition to stimulating the body’s immune response, vaccination
programmes can also help to create herd immunity. Herd immunity occurs when a large
enough portion of the population is immunised against a disease, so that those who have
not been immunised are less likely to meet the disease. This can help to reduce the
spread of the disease and protect those who are not able to be immunised, such as those
with weakened immune systems. Overall, vaccination is an effective tool for preventing
the spread of COVID 19. Vaccines can provide protection against the virus and can help
to create herd immunity, reducing the risk of infection, hospitalisation, and death from
the virus. List and explain, in detail the methods used by AstraZeneca Moderna and
Pfizer to help reduce the spread of COVID 19
1. Vaccine Development: AstraZeneca, Moderna, and Pfizer have worked together to
develop and manufacture vaccines for the prevention of COVID-19. The three
companies are using their own respective technologies to develop and test vaccines, as
well as collaborate with other companies to expand their vaccine development efforts.
AstraZeneca has developed a vaccine using a weakened version of a common cold
virus, which carries the genetic code of the COVID-19 virus. Moderna has developed a
vaccine using messenger RNA (mRNA) technology. Pfizer has developed a vaccine
using a novel mRNA technology.
