HOW PSYCHOLOGY WORKS-APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY Visually Explained Version 2023

HOW PSYCHOLOGY WORKS-APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY Visually Explained Version 2023. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? There are many different approaches to psychology— the scientific study of the human mind and how individuals behave. All seek the key to unlock people’s thoughts, memories, and emotions. The development of psychology Most advances in psychology are recent, dating back about 150 years, but its origins lie with the philosophers of ancient Greece and Persia. Many approaches and fields of study have been developed that give psychologists a toolkit to apply to the real world. As society has changed, new applications have also arisen to meet people’s needs. 470–370 bceDemocritus makes a distinction between the intellect and knowledge gained through the senses; Hippocrates introduces the principle of scientific medicine c.1550 bceThe Ebers Papyrus (Egyptian medical papyrus) mentions depression 705 ceThe first hospital for the mentally ill is built in Baghdad (followed by hospitals in Cairo in 800 and Damascus in 1270) mid-1880s Wundt trains Hugo Münsterberg and James McKeen Cattell, who sow the seeds of I/O (industrial/organizational) psychology (pp.176–187) 387 bcePlato suggests that the brain is the seat of mental processes 1896 Clinical psychology begins with the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania 350 bceAristotle writes on the soul in De Anima, and he introduces the tabula rasa (blank slate) concept of the mind c.300–30 bceZeno teaches stoicism, the inspiration for CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy) in the 1960s ANCIENT GREEK PHILOSOPHERS EUROPEAN PHILOSOPHERS SCHOLARS OF THE EARLY MUSLIM WORLD 850 Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al Tabari develops the idea of clinical psychiatry to treat mental patients c.900 Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi writes of mental illness, with physical and/ or psychological causes; Rhazes practices the first recorded psychotherapy 1025 Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine describes many conditions, including hallucinations, mania, insomnia, and dementia 1590 Rudolph Goclenius first coins the term “psychology” 1620s Francis Bacon writes on psychological topics, including the nature of knowledge and memory 1629–1633 René Descartes outlines his dualistic theory of mind versus matter (pp.24–25) in Treatise of the World 1808 Franz Gall writes about phrenology (the idea that a person’s skull shape and placement of bumps on the head can reveal personality traits) 1698 John Locke describes the human mind as a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1879 Wilhelm Wundt founds a laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, dedicated to psychological research, marking the start of formal experimental psychology 1890–1920 Methods of teaching in schools are changed with the advent of educational psychology (pp.166–175) PSYCHOLOGY AS A FORMAL DISCIPLINE WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? The development of psychology 12 13 2000 Sequencing of the human genome opens up a new area of research into the human mind and body 1990 Jerome Bruner publishes Acts of Meaning: Four Lectures on Mind and Culture, drawing on philosophy, linguistics, and anthropology (cultural psychology, pp.214–215) 1980s Health psychology (pp.112–115) becomes a recognized branch of the profession 1976 Richard Dawkins publishes The Selfish Gene, popularizing evolutionary psychology (p.22) 1971 A CT (computed tomography) scan makes the first image of a living brain 1965 The Swampscott Conference of Education of Psychologists in Community Mental Health takes place 2000 The World Congress of Psychology takes place in Stockholm. Diplomat Jan Eliasson discusses how psychology can help conflict resolution 1960s Aaron T. Beck pioneers the practice of CBT (p.125) 1960s Interest in community psychology (pp.214–223) surges due to political unrest Early 1960s Systemic (family) therapy (pp.138–141) emerges as a field of study 1909 onward Developmental psychology (pp.146–153) emerges prompted by Freud’s emphasis on the importance of childhood experiences 1900 Sigmund Freud introduces his theory of psychoanalysis in The Interpretation of Dreams (pp.14–15) 1913 Carl Jung breaks away from his colleague Freud and develops his own theories (p.120) of the unconscious mind 1913 John B. Watson publishes Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, outlining the principles of behaviorism (pp.16–17) 1935 Kurt Koffka publishes Principles of Gestalt Psychology (p.18 and p.133) 1938 ECT (electroconvulsive therapy) (pp.142−143) is used for the first time 1939 HFE psychology (pp.188–193) develops in World War II to help operators make and use complex machines and weaponry with accuracy 1954 Gordon Allport identifies the stages of social prejudice, an aspect of political psychology (pp.204–213) 1950s In his studies of epilepsy, neuroscientist Wilder G. Penfield links chemical activity in the brain with psychological phenomena (pp.22–23) 1950s The first psychoactive drugs are developed; psychopharmacology begins as a treatment for mental illness (pp.142–143) 1952 The first Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is published 1956 George A. Miller applies cognitive psychology (pp.20–21) in The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two 1954 Abraham Maslow publishes Motivation and Personality, hailing humanism as a third force in psychology (pp.18–19) 1916 Lewis Terman applies psychology to law enforcement, heralding the beginnings of forensic psychology (pp.194–203) 1920 Jean Piaget publishes The Child’s Conception of the World, prompting the study of cognition in children 1920s onward The use of psychometric tests to measure intelligence starts individual-differences psychology (pp.146–153) 1920s Dr. Carl Diem founds a sports psychology laboratory in Berlin (pp.236–245) 1920s Behavioral psychologist John B. Watson begins working in the advertising industry and develops the discipline of consumer psychology (pp.224–235) Early 1930s Social psychologist Marie Jahoda publishes the first study of community psychology (pp.214–223) 1935 onward Biological psychology (pp.22–23) emerges as a discipline BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOANALYTICAL HUMANISTIC COGNITIVE BIOLOGICAL NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Topographical model Freud divided the mind into three levels of consciousness. The conscious mind forms only a small part of the whole. Although it is completely unaware of the thoughts in the unconscious mind, the latter still affect behavior. Psychoanalysis In this therapy (p.119), the client tells the analyst about their childhood memories and dreams in order to unlock the unconscious mind and reveal how it is controlling or triggering undesirable behavior. What is it? Founded by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud in the early 20th century, psychoanalytical theory proposed that personality and behavior are the outcome of continual conflicts in the mind. The individual is not usually aware Psychoanalytical theory This psychological theory proposes that the unconscious struggles of the mind determine how personality develops and dictates behavior. of the discord because it takes place at a subconscious level. Freud suggested conflict occurs between three parts of the mind: the id, superego, and ego (below, right). Freud believed that personality develops from birth in five stages, which he called psychosexual because they involve both sexuality and mental processes. At each stage a person’s mind focuses on a different aspect of sexuality, such as oral pleasure when they suck their thumb as a baby. Freud believed that the psychosexual stages trigger a battle between Conscious mind This contains the ideas and emotions that people are aware of. Preconscious mind This stores information such as childhood memories, which can be accessed through psychoanalysis. Unconscious mind This hides most of a person’s impulses, desires, and thoughts. Dreams Dreams are seen as a channel for unconscious thoughts that people cannot usually access because many of them are too disturbing for the conscious mind to cope with. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Psychoanalytical theory 14 15 Structural model The conscious mind is just the tip of the iceberg, a small part of a hidden whole. Psychoanalytical theory is based on the concept that the unconscious mind is structured in three parts—the id, ego, and superego—which “talk” to one another to try to resolve conflicting emotions and impulses. biology and social expectations, and the mind must resolve this conflict before a person can move on to healthy mental development. Evaluation Although Freud’s model has been hugely influential in highlighting the role of the subconscious (psychoanalysis, p.119), it has proved controversial because it focuses on sexuality as the driver of personality. Many critics view his model as too subjective and too simplistic to explain the complex nature of the mind and behavior. What is it? Freud argued that people subconsciously employ defense mechanisms when faced with anxiety or unpleasant emotions. These mechanisms help them to cope with memories or impulses that they find stressful or distasteful by tricking them into thinking that everything is fine. What happens? The ego uses defense mechanisms to help people reach a mental compromise when dealing with things that cause internal conflict. Common mechanisms that distort a sense of reality include denial, displacement, repression, regression, intellectualization, and projection. How does it work? Denial is a common defense mechanism used to justify a habit an individual feels bad about, such as smoking. By saying that they are only a “social smoker,” they can allow themselves to have a cigarette while not admitting that they are in fact addicted to smoking. DEFENSE MECHANISM Conscious Unconscious Superego This wants to do the right thing. It is the moral conscience that takes on the role of a strict parent. Id This strives for instant gratification, is childlike, impulsive, and hard to reason with. Ego This is the voice of reason, negotiating with the id and the superego. Inferiority complex When self-esteem is so low that a person cannot function normally. The idea was developed by neo-Freudian Alfred Adler. Pleasure principle What drives the id—the desire to obtain pleasure and avoid pain. Neo-Freudians Theorists who built on Freud’s psychoanalytic theories, such as Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, and Alfred Adler. NEED TO KNOW Themes of behaviorism John Watson developed behavioral psychology in 1913. His theory agreed with the early 20th-century trend toward data-backed science rather than concentrating on the subjective workings of the mind, and the behaviorist approach was influential for decades. Later psychologists interpreted behavioral theory along more flexible lines, but objective evidence remains a cornerstone of research. What is it? The starting point for behavioral psychology is a focus on only observable human behavior, leaving out thought and emotion. This approach rests on three main assumptions. First, people learn their behavior from the world around them, and not from innate or inherited factors. Second, because psychology is a science, measurable data from controlled experiments and observation should support its theories. Third, all behavior is the result of a stimulus that triggers a particular response. Once the behavioral psychologist has identified a person’s stimulus-response association, they can predict it, a method known as classical conditioning (below). In therapy (pp.122–129), the therapist uses this prediction to help the client change their behavior. Evaluation The strength of the behaviorist approach—that it can be scientifically proven, unlike Freud’s psychoanalytic approach (pp.14–15), for example—has also been seen as its weakness. Many of the behavioral experiments were carried out on rats and dogs, and humanists (pp.18–19) in particular rejected the assumption that people in the world acted in the same way as animals in laboratory conditions. Behavioral psychology also takes little account of free will or biological factors such as testosterone and other hormones, reducing human experience to a set of conditioned behaviors. Behavioral psychology analyzes and treats people on the basis that their behavior is learned by interacting with the world and that the influence of the subconscious is irrelevant. Behaviorist approach Watson’s theory became known as methodological behaviorism because of its focus on scientific methods: He viewed psychology as a science, its goals being the prediction and control of behavior. It is the most extreme theory of behaviorism because it rules out any influence from a person’s DNA or internal mental state. It assumes that when people are born their minds are a blank slate and they learn all their behavior from the people and things around them (classical conditioning, left). For example, a baby smiles back when their mother smiles, or cries if their mother raises her voice. METHODOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM EXTERNAL CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Pavlov noted that his dogs salivated at the sight of food and started ringing a bell at the same time as feeding them. Soon, the dogs salivated merely at the sound of the bell, which they now associated with food. Conditioned stimulus Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response Conditioned response Neutral stimulus WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Behaviorist approach 16 17 OPERANT CONDITIONING Positive reinforcement Giving a reward encourages good behavior. For example, the dog receives a treat for sitting on command. It quickly learns that repeating that behavior will earn it another treat. Negative punishment Taking away something that the dog enjoys is used to discourage undesired behaviors. For example, the owner turns their back on the dog to deprive it of attention if it jumps up. The dog learns not to jump up. Positive punishment The owner does something unpleasant to discourage bad behavior. When the dog pulls ahead on the lead, its collar feels uncomfortably tight around its throat. Negative reinforcement The owner removes something bad to encourage good behavior. The lead goes slack when the dog walks close to its owner. The dog learns to walk to heel without pulling and so avoid the choking sensation. This method for inducing behavior change, in this case training a dog, involves positive or negative actions on the part of the owner to reinforce or punish the dog’s behavior. In the 1930s B. F. Skinner developed radical behaviorism, which allowed for the influence of biology on behavior: Like Watson, Skinner believed that the most valid approach to psychology was one based on scientifically observing human behavior and its triggers. Skinner took classical conditioning a step forward with the idea of reinforcement— behavior that is reinforced by a reward is more likely to be repeated (operant conditioning, above). Conceived by Arthur W. Staats, psychological behaviorism gained dominance over four decades. It informs current practice in psychology, especially in education: A person’s personality is shaped by learned behaviors, genetics, their emotional state, how their brain processes information, and the world around them. Staats researched the importance of parenting in child development. He showed that early linguistic and cognitive training resulted in advanced language development and higher performance in intelligence tests when children were older. RADICAL BEHAVIORISM PSYCHOLOGICAL BEHAVIORISM COGNITION EMOTION EXTERNAL BIOLOGY EXTERNAL BIOLOGY Road to fulfillment Carl Rogers identified three parts to personality that determine a person’s psychological state: self-worth, self-image, and the ideal self. When a person’s feelings, behavior, and experience match their selfimage and reflect who they would like to be (ideal self), they are content. But if there is a mismatch (incongruence) between these aspects, they are dissatisfied. What is it? Whereas behavioral psychology is concerned with observing external actions and psychoanalysis delves into the subconscious, humanism is holistic, focusing on how a person perceives their own behavior and interprets events. It centers on a person’s subjective view of themselves and who they would like to be, rather than the objective view of an observer. Pioneered by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow in the 1950s, humanism offers an alternative way of trying to fathom human nature. It assumes that personal growth and fulfillment are primary goals in life, and that emotional and mental Unlike other psychological approaches, humanism places central importance on the individual’s viewpoint, encouraging the question “How do I see myself?” rather than “How do others see me?” “The good life is a process, not a state of being.” Carl Rogers, American humanist psychologist Humanism GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY Influenced by humanism, gestalt psychology examines in detail how the mind takes small pieces of information and builds them into a meaningful whole. It emphasizes the importance of perception—the laws that govern how each person perceives the world. Part of gestalt assessment involves showing clients a series of images to discover how their eye perceives each one. The Rubin Vase illusion is the best known of these, and illustrates the law of “figure” and “ground”: a person’s mind always works to distinguish a figure (words, for example) from its background (a white page), and in doing so, makes a decision about priority and what to focus on. well-being comes from achieving this. The principle of free will, exercised in the choices a person makes, is also key. Evaluation Rogers and other humanist psychologists suggested a number of new methods of investigation, such as open-ended questionnaires in which there were no “right” answers, casual interviews, and the use of diaries to record feelings and thoughts. They reasoned that the only way to really get to know someone was to talk to them. Humanism is the theory that underpins person-centered therapy (p.132)—one of the most common therapies for depression. The humanistic approach is also used in education to encourage children to exercise free will and make choices for themselves, and in researching and understanding motivation. However, humanism ignores other aspects of the individual such as their biology, the subconscious mind, and the powerful influence of hormones. Critics also say that the approach is unscientific, because its goal of self-realization cannot be accurately measured. THE RUBIN VASE ILLUSION offers the viewer a perceptual choice between seeing two faces in profile and seeing a white vase. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Humanism 18 19 If there is little overlap between how a person sees themselves (self-image) and what they would like to be (ideal self), they feel unhappy, with low self-worth. INDIVIDUAL OR GROUP? Individualism Identity defined in terms of personal attributes— such as outgoing, kind, or generous Own goals take priority over those of the group Collectivism Identity defined by which group someone belongs to Family, then workplace, are most important groups Goals of group take priority over individual’s Humanism is rooted in Western ideas of personal identity and achievement, sometimes called individualism. In contrast, collectivism subordinates the person to the group. INCONGRUENT SELF-ACTUALIZATION SELFIMAGE IDEAL SELF With more common ground between self-image and ideal self, a person has greater self-worth and adopts a more positive frame of mind. INCREASINGLY CONGRUENT SELFIMAGE IDEAL SELF SELF When a person’s perception of who they are aligns with who they want to be, they achieve self-actualization. This satisfies their need to reach and express their full potential. SELF-ACTUALIZATION Information processing Using evidence from controlled experiments, psychologists have built theoretical models of how the mind deals with information. According to these models, the human brain handles information in the same sequence a computer uses to handle data—from input, through transformation of the data, to retrieval. What is it? When the computer arrived in offices in the late 1950s, it sparked comparisons between artificial information processing and the operation of the human mind. Psychologists reasoned that in the same way that a computer accepts data, codes it for storage, and retrieves it, the human mind takes in information, changes it to make sense of it, stores it, and recalls it when needed. This computer analogy came to be the foundation for cognitive psychology. The theories behind cognitive psychology can apply to virtually every aspect of daily life. Examples include the brain receiving and processing sensory information to make a judgment (such as recognizing that a carton of milk has soured from its bad smell); reasoning with logic to reach a decision (such as whether to buy an expensive shirt that may last longer than a cheap one); or learning how to play a musical instrument, which requires the brain to make new connections and store new memories. Evaluation Although cognitive psychology emphasizes internal processes, it aims to be strictly scientific, relying on laboratory experiments to back up any theory. What happens in controlled experiments, however, can be difficult to apply to real-life scenarios. Similarly, the assumption that the human mind functions like Cognitive psychology A branch of psychology that considers the mind to be like a complex computer, the cognitive approach analyzes the way people process information and how that dictates their behavior and emotions. INPUT (from environment) A person’s sense organs detect stimuli from the external world and send messages to the brain as electrical impulses containing information. For example, if a person’s car breaks down, their brain focuses on warning signs, such as unexpected sounds from the engine, visual cues like smoke, or the smell of burning rubber. PROCESSING (mediational mental event) After receiving information via the senses, the brain must sort through it to analyze it and decide what to do with it. Cognitive psychologists call this process mediational because it happens between (“mediates”) the environmental stimulus and the brain’s eventual response to that stimulus. In the case of a car breakdown, the brain might analyze the smell of burning rubber, and connect it with an earlier memory of a similar smell.