Lec 1: Forensic Science - An Introduction & Defining the CSI Effect
Law and Science:
● Philosophical foundation of criminal justice system:
○ Protect the innocent
○ Ensure the truth emerges
● Law:
○ Defines certain behaviours as criminal
‒ Provides a framework of regulations & determines the standard of
evidence required for prosection.
○ Goal: Settle disputes, obtain a favourable outcome.
○ Relies on the adversarial system and arguments to resolve conflict.
○ Truth decided by the trial of fact (judge or jury).
○ Outcome-based
● Science:
○ Goal: Describe the workings of the natural world.
○ Relies on the scientific method, & refinement of hypothesis to validate issues.
○ Find out whether truth can be determined dependent on available evidence.
● Both law & science work within the criminal justice system but differ in goals &
methods.
Forensic Science:
● The application of scientific knowledge & techniques to legal matters (Bell, 2006).
● Forensic is derived from the Latin ‘forensis’ (knowledge).
○ People debate or discuss, judicial connotation
● Forensic methodologies draw from a wide range of disciplines (anything can be
evidence).
● Why is it important?
○ Science brings about objectivity (not influenced by emotion, bias, or opinion).
○ In the past, convictions were based on subjective evidence (eyewitness
testimony).
○ Today, scientific evidence allows criminal investigations to be more objective
(e.g., likelihood of matching DNA to certain individuals).
The Forensic Expert:
● A forensic scientist must remain an unbiased advocate for objective facts.
● May be called upon to solve as an expert witness.
○ Only declared an expert witness by a judge.
○ May offer an opinion on the work that was done and the significance of the
findings (can give an interpretation).
, ● Being an expert witness is a serious task.
○ Opinions of an expert witness may weigh heavily on the outcome of a case.
● Criteria for being declared or accepted as an expert witness.
○ Witness is of sound & unquestioned integrity
○ Witness is sufficiently trained & experienced
○ Science or technology presented meets the criteria of acceptance:
‒ Peer review
‒ Testing & validation
‒ Rate of error
‒ General acceptance
● Forensic experts must base their opinions/conclusions on facts established by reliable
methods.
● Lay witness: what was heard, saw, done, or experienced:
○ Requires no special training or technical knowledge.
○ Testimony must be factual (not opinion-based, no interpretation).
The Scientific Method:
● “Method of procedure that consists of observation, measurement, & experimentation, and
the formulations, testing, & modification of hypothesis” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018).
● Science adheres to strict guidelines to ensure integrity (known as scientific method).
○ Ensures observations free of bias
1. Formulate question
2. Generate a hypothesis
3. Collect data by observing & experimenting
4. Interpret data
5. Draw conclusions
● When a hypothesis is validated through experimentation, it becomes suitable as evidence.
Crime Scene Investigation:
● A crime scene investigation is a methodological process:
○ Follows set of principles & procedures that adhere to guidelines.
○ Not rigid or fixed (every crime scene is different).
● A dynamic & thoughtful process:
○ Requires an active approach (how pieces of evidence link to one another).
○ Experiences & observations are key.
● Grounded in the scientific method.
● Objectives:
○ Recognize & identify forensic evidence
○ Collect & preserve evidence
○ Reconstruct the crime
, ○ Assist in the formation of a theory or theories/hypothesis about the crime
○ Example: May ascertain the sequence of events leading to a crime, assist in
uncovering a motive, etc.
● Difference between a crime scene investigator & forensic scientist:
○ A crime scene investigator attends the crime scene.
‒ Properly recognizes, identifies, collects, & preserves evidence at a crime
scene.
○ A forensic scientist works in a forensic laboratory.
‒ Perform scientific analyses on evidence, submitted by the crime scene
investigator.
The CSI Effect:
● Overview:
○ Unrealistic expectations of the capabilities of forensics & crime scene
investigation.
○ Not new, a century ago, this was known as the ‘Sherlock Holmes Effect’
○ Result of inaccurate depictions in media:
‒ Roles & responsibilities
‒ Capabilities
‒ Nature of evidence
‒ Procedures & time frames
● Analysis:
○ Potential impact on the real criminal justice system.
○ CSI is unique b/c it presents a different model of police procedurals, offers shows
present forensics as a cog in the criminal justice wheel.
‒ ‘Without a Trace’ - federal point of view
‒ ‘Law and Order’ - judicial process
‒ ‘Cold Case’ - closure & eyewitnesses
● Impact:
○ General impact is on public perception of crimes & investigations.
○ Impact on court & the legal system:
‒ Jurors
‒ Prosecution (higher rates of acquittal)
‒ Defence (higher rates of acquittal & conviction)
‒ Judge
○ Impact on criminal activity
● Responding:
○ Being aware that this phenomenon exists (becoming more critical of your
interpretations & point of view).
○ Differentiate between education & awareness
, Lec 2: History of Forensic Science & Crime Scene Investigation
Roots of Criminal Investigation:
● Forensic science is a relatively new career field/discipline.
● Its roots can be traced to approximately 1248:
○ China: the first postmortem examination gave information about the cause of
death.
○ Interdisciplinary nature of forensic science & crime scene investigation:
‒ Many pioneers in other fields became relevant and contributed to the
development of crime scene investigation.
● ‘Kin policing’ in early clan life.
○ All clan members were responsible for determining sanctions to impose on
violators (large groups of families determined whether or not someone was guilty
or not).
○ Kin policing was absolute and the punishments included corporal punishments to
executions.
● Among ancient Hebrews, law enforcement became the responsibility of kings, high
priests, & elders.
○ Certain individuals (individuals with power) were appointed to apprehend &
punish.
○ Continued into Roman rule
● In ancient Babylon, which took place approximately in the 1700’s B.C.,
○ One of the earliest & most complete written legal codes was created (hammurabi).
‒ 282 rules
‒ Messengers were assigned to carry out the law
‒ Created the foundations for the establishment of a judicial system.
● 5th century B.C., Romans adopted the first written laws:
○ Twelve tables (‘Law of the Twelve Tables’)
‒ Rights & responsibilities of the Roman citizen
‒ Legal procedures
‒ Property ownership, building costs
‒ Punishment for crimes
○ Designated police officials called Quaestores Parricidi (formed the foundation of
modern-day police detectives).
○ Through the conquest of the Mediterranean, the Romans influenced the written
legal systems of Western Europe.
● From the collapse of the Roman Empire through the early Middle Ages, formal law
enforcement was non-existent as a tool for social control.
○ Individual offences committed by the guilty were punished through:
‒ Trial by ordeal
Law and Science:
● Philosophical foundation of criminal justice system:
○ Protect the innocent
○ Ensure the truth emerges
● Law:
○ Defines certain behaviours as criminal
‒ Provides a framework of regulations & determines the standard of
evidence required for prosection.
○ Goal: Settle disputes, obtain a favourable outcome.
○ Relies on the adversarial system and arguments to resolve conflict.
○ Truth decided by the trial of fact (judge or jury).
○ Outcome-based
● Science:
○ Goal: Describe the workings of the natural world.
○ Relies on the scientific method, & refinement of hypothesis to validate issues.
○ Find out whether truth can be determined dependent on available evidence.
● Both law & science work within the criminal justice system but differ in goals &
methods.
Forensic Science:
● The application of scientific knowledge & techniques to legal matters (Bell, 2006).
● Forensic is derived from the Latin ‘forensis’ (knowledge).
○ People debate or discuss, judicial connotation
● Forensic methodologies draw from a wide range of disciplines (anything can be
evidence).
● Why is it important?
○ Science brings about objectivity (not influenced by emotion, bias, or opinion).
○ In the past, convictions were based on subjective evidence (eyewitness
testimony).
○ Today, scientific evidence allows criminal investigations to be more objective
(e.g., likelihood of matching DNA to certain individuals).
The Forensic Expert:
● A forensic scientist must remain an unbiased advocate for objective facts.
● May be called upon to solve as an expert witness.
○ Only declared an expert witness by a judge.
○ May offer an opinion on the work that was done and the significance of the
findings (can give an interpretation).
, ● Being an expert witness is a serious task.
○ Opinions of an expert witness may weigh heavily on the outcome of a case.
● Criteria for being declared or accepted as an expert witness.
○ Witness is of sound & unquestioned integrity
○ Witness is sufficiently trained & experienced
○ Science or technology presented meets the criteria of acceptance:
‒ Peer review
‒ Testing & validation
‒ Rate of error
‒ General acceptance
● Forensic experts must base their opinions/conclusions on facts established by reliable
methods.
● Lay witness: what was heard, saw, done, or experienced:
○ Requires no special training or technical knowledge.
○ Testimony must be factual (not opinion-based, no interpretation).
The Scientific Method:
● “Method of procedure that consists of observation, measurement, & experimentation, and
the formulations, testing, & modification of hypothesis” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018).
● Science adheres to strict guidelines to ensure integrity (known as scientific method).
○ Ensures observations free of bias
1. Formulate question
2. Generate a hypothesis
3. Collect data by observing & experimenting
4. Interpret data
5. Draw conclusions
● When a hypothesis is validated through experimentation, it becomes suitable as evidence.
Crime Scene Investigation:
● A crime scene investigation is a methodological process:
○ Follows set of principles & procedures that adhere to guidelines.
○ Not rigid or fixed (every crime scene is different).
● A dynamic & thoughtful process:
○ Requires an active approach (how pieces of evidence link to one another).
○ Experiences & observations are key.
● Grounded in the scientific method.
● Objectives:
○ Recognize & identify forensic evidence
○ Collect & preserve evidence
○ Reconstruct the crime
, ○ Assist in the formation of a theory or theories/hypothesis about the crime
○ Example: May ascertain the sequence of events leading to a crime, assist in
uncovering a motive, etc.
● Difference between a crime scene investigator & forensic scientist:
○ A crime scene investigator attends the crime scene.
‒ Properly recognizes, identifies, collects, & preserves evidence at a crime
scene.
○ A forensic scientist works in a forensic laboratory.
‒ Perform scientific analyses on evidence, submitted by the crime scene
investigator.
The CSI Effect:
● Overview:
○ Unrealistic expectations of the capabilities of forensics & crime scene
investigation.
○ Not new, a century ago, this was known as the ‘Sherlock Holmes Effect’
○ Result of inaccurate depictions in media:
‒ Roles & responsibilities
‒ Capabilities
‒ Nature of evidence
‒ Procedures & time frames
● Analysis:
○ Potential impact on the real criminal justice system.
○ CSI is unique b/c it presents a different model of police procedurals, offers shows
present forensics as a cog in the criminal justice wheel.
‒ ‘Without a Trace’ - federal point of view
‒ ‘Law and Order’ - judicial process
‒ ‘Cold Case’ - closure & eyewitnesses
● Impact:
○ General impact is on public perception of crimes & investigations.
○ Impact on court & the legal system:
‒ Jurors
‒ Prosecution (higher rates of acquittal)
‒ Defence (higher rates of acquittal & conviction)
‒ Judge
○ Impact on criminal activity
● Responding:
○ Being aware that this phenomenon exists (becoming more critical of your
interpretations & point of view).
○ Differentiate between education & awareness
, Lec 2: History of Forensic Science & Crime Scene Investigation
Roots of Criminal Investigation:
● Forensic science is a relatively new career field/discipline.
● Its roots can be traced to approximately 1248:
○ China: the first postmortem examination gave information about the cause of
death.
○ Interdisciplinary nature of forensic science & crime scene investigation:
‒ Many pioneers in other fields became relevant and contributed to the
development of crime scene investigation.
● ‘Kin policing’ in early clan life.
○ All clan members were responsible for determining sanctions to impose on
violators (large groups of families determined whether or not someone was guilty
or not).
○ Kin policing was absolute and the punishments included corporal punishments to
executions.
● Among ancient Hebrews, law enforcement became the responsibility of kings, high
priests, & elders.
○ Certain individuals (individuals with power) were appointed to apprehend &
punish.
○ Continued into Roman rule
● In ancient Babylon, which took place approximately in the 1700’s B.C.,
○ One of the earliest & most complete written legal codes was created (hammurabi).
‒ 282 rules
‒ Messengers were assigned to carry out the law
‒ Created the foundations for the establishment of a judicial system.
● 5th century B.C., Romans adopted the first written laws:
○ Twelve tables (‘Law of the Twelve Tables’)
‒ Rights & responsibilities of the Roman citizen
‒ Legal procedures
‒ Property ownership, building costs
‒ Punishment for crimes
○ Designated police officials called Quaestores Parricidi (formed the foundation of
modern-day police detectives).
○ Through the conquest of the Mediterranean, the Romans influenced the written
legal systems of Western Europe.
● From the collapse of the Roman Empire through the early Middle Ages, formal law
enforcement was non-existent as a tool for social control.
○ Individual offences committed by the guilty were punished through:
‒ Trial by ordeal
