Research methodology
CH1 psychology is a way of thinking
- Empiricist: basing one’s conclusions on systematic observations
- Evidence based treatment: therapies supported by research
- Research producers and consumers both share a commitment to empiricism and study the
work of others before the producers make/develop the research and consumers read it
Scientists:
1. Empiricist in investigation
2. Test theories through research/ revise theory based on results
3. Follow norms in scientific community
4. Empirical approach to applied and basic research
5. Make their work public
- Empiricism evidence from senses (sight, hearing, touch) instruments that assist senses
(timers, thermos, questionnaires)
- Theory: set of statement
- Hypothesis: prediction (ideally preregistered)
- Data: set of observations
- Replication: study is conducted again to test if the result is consistent
Theory-data cycle:
De Groot’s empirical cycle:
BvH
, - Falsifiability: characteristics of good theories
- Applied research is done with a practical problem in mind
- Basic research is done the goal to enhance the general body of knowledge
- Translational research is the use of lessons from basic research to develop and test
CH2 Why research is best and how to find it.
The research versus your experience
- Own experiences are powerful sources of information
- Often base opinions on the experiences of friends and family
Experience has no comparison group
- When basing beliefs on personal experience, we don’t have a comparison group.
research does, a comparison group enables us to compare what would happen both with
and without the thing of interest
- Comparison groups are crucial basing conclusions on personal experience is problematic,
daily life usually doesn’t include comparison experiences.
Experience is confounded
- Another problem with basing conclusions on personal experience: if a change occurred, we
can’t be sure what caused it.
so much is happening at once.
- In research, alternative explanations for an outcome confounds
- Confound occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome but in fact other things changed,
you are confused about what the cause really was.
- What can be done about confounds?
For personal experience it is hard to isolate variables.
In research, scientist can use careful controls to be sure they are only changing one factor at
a time.
Research is better than experience
- In a controlled study, researchers can set up at least one comparison group.
- Researcher has a privileged view a view from outside.
- When acting in the situation, yours is a view from the inside, you only see one possible
condition.
- Researchers can control for potential confounds
- Consistent results from several similar studies mean that scientists can be more confident. In
their findings.
Research results are probabilistic
- Sometimes our personal stories contradict the research results.
- Results of behavioral science are probabilistic findings do not explain all cases all of the
time.
conclusions or research are meant to explain a certain proportion of the possible cases.
- Prediction is not perfect
Ways intuition can be biased
- We might be aware of our potential to be biased we may be too busy or not motivated
enough to correct and control.
being swayed by a good story
BvH
, - Accepting a conclusion just because it makes sense or feels natural.
- Faulty intuition can even be harmful.
Being persuaded by what easily comes to mind.
- Availability heuristic states that the things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our
thinking.
- When events are memorable, vivid, or recent, they come to mind more easily leading us to
overestimate.
- Availability heuristic might lead us to wrongly estimate the number of something or how
often something happens.
- What comes to mind easily can bias our conclusions.
Failing to think about what we cannot see
- Prevents us from seeing the relationship between an event and its outcome.
- People forget to seek out the information that isn’t there.
- Present/ present bias we often fail to look for absences, instead it is easy to notice what is
present.
- We notice the times when both the treatment and the desired outcome are present.
Focusing on the evidence we like best
- Tendency to look only at information that agrees with what we want to believe
confirmation bias
- When people are asked to test a hypothesis, they tend to only seek the evidence that
supports their expectations.
Biased about being biased
- Bias blind spot belief that we are unlikely to fall prey to the other biases
- Most of us think we are less biased than others
- Makes us trust our faulty reasoning even more
The intuitive thinker vs the scientific reasoner
- To be an empiricist you must also guard against common biases when you look at the data
- Ask: compared to what?
Trusting the authorities on the subject
- Be cautious when basing your beliefs on what everybody says
- A status of authority makes people less likely to ask for evidence
- Ask yourself about the source of their ideas
- Figure 2.12 p38
Consulting scientific sources
Journal articles
- Are written for an audience of other psychological scientists and psychology students
- Empirical journal articles report the result of an empirical research study, contain details
about the study method, statistics, and the result
- Review journal articles summarize and integrate all the published studies that have been
done in one research area
Sometimes uses a quantitive technique called meta-analysis contains the effect size of a
relationship
- Both articles must be peer-reviewed before being published
Books and edited books
- Common to contribute a chapter to an edited book
- Edited book collection of chapters on a common topic
- Good place to find a summary on a set of research
BvH
CH1 psychology is a way of thinking
- Empiricist: basing one’s conclusions on systematic observations
- Evidence based treatment: therapies supported by research
- Research producers and consumers both share a commitment to empiricism and study the
work of others before the producers make/develop the research and consumers read it
Scientists:
1. Empiricist in investigation
2. Test theories through research/ revise theory based on results
3. Follow norms in scientific community
4. Empirical approach to applied and basic research
5. Make their work public
- Empiricism evidence from senses (sight, hearing, touch) instruments that assist senses
(timers, thermos, questionnaires)
- Theory: set of statement
- Hypothesis: prediction (ideally preregistered)
- Data: set of observations
- Replication: study is conducted again to test if the result is consistent
Theory-data cycle:
De Groot’s empirical cycle:
BvH
, - Falsifiability: characteristics of good theories
- Applied research is done with a practical problem in mind
- Basic research is done the goal to enhance the general body of knowledge
- Translational research is the use of lessons from basic research to develop and test
CH2 Why research is best and how to find it.
The research versus your experience
- Own experiences are powerful sources of information
- Often base opinions on the experiences of friends and family
Experience has no comparison group
- When basing beliefs on personal experience, we don’t have a comparison group.
research does, a comparison group enables us to compare what would happen both with
and without the thing of interest
- Comparison groups are crucial basing conclusions on personal experience is problematic,
daily life usually doesn’t include comparison experiences.
Experience is confounded
- Another problem with basing conclusions on personal experience: if a change occurred, we
can’t be sure what caused it.
so much is happening at once.
- In research, alternative explanations for an outcome confounds
- Confound occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome but in fact other things changed,
you are confused about what the cause really was.
- What can be done about confounds?
For personal experience it is hard to isolate variables.
In research, scientist can use careful controls to be sure they are only changing one factor at
a time.
Research is better than experience
- In a controlled study, researchers can set up at least one comparison group.
- Researcher has a privileged view a view from outside.
- When acting in the situation, yours is a view from the inside, you only see one possible
condition.
- Researchers can control for potential confounds
- Consistent results from several similar studies mean that scientists can be more confident. In
their findings.
Research results are probabilistic
- Sometimes our personal stories contradict the research results.
- Results of behavioral science are probabilistic findings do not explain all cases all of the
time.
conclusions or research are meant to explain a certain proportion of the possible cases.
- Prediction is not perfect
Ways intuition can be biased
- We might be aware of our potential to be biased we may be too busy or not motivated
enough to correct and control.
being swayed by a good story
BvH
, - Accepting a conclusion just because it makes sense or feels natural.
- Faulty intuition can even be harmful.
Being persuaded by what easily comes to mind.
- Availability heuristic states that the things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our
thinking.
- When events are memorable, vivid, or recent, they come to mind more easily leading us to
overestimate.
- Availability heuristic might lead us to wrongly estimate the number of something or how
often something happens.
- What comes to mind easily can bias our conclusions.
Failing to think about what we cannot see
- Prevents us from seeing the relationship between an event and its outcome.
- People forget to seek out the information that isn’t there.
- Present/ present bias we often fail to look for absences, instead it is easy to notice what is
present.
- We notice the times when both the treatment and the desired outcome are present.
Focusing on the evidence we like best
- Tendency to look only at information that agrees with what we want to believe
confirmation bias
- When people are asked to test a hypothesis, they tend to only seek the evidence that
supports their expectations.
Biased about being biased
- Bias blind spot belief that we are unlikely to fall prey to the other biases
- Most of us think we are less biased than others
- Makes us trust our faulty reasoning even more
The intuitive thinker vs the scientific reasoner
- To be an empiricist you must also guard against common biases when you look at the data
- Ask: compared to what?
Trusting the authorities on the subject
- Be cautious when basing your beliefs on what everybody says
- A status of authority makes people less likely to ask for evidence
- Ask yourself about the source of their ideas
- Figure 2.12 p38
Consulting scientific sources
Journal articles
- Are written for an audience of other psychological scientists and psychology students
- Empirical journal articles report the result of an empirical research study, contain details
about the study method, statistics, and the result
- Review journal articles summarize and integrate all the published studies that have been
done in one research area
Sometimes uses a quantitive technique called meta-analysis contains the effect size of a
relationship
- Both articles must be peer-reviewed before being published
Books and edited books
- Common to contribute a chapter to an edited book
- Edited book collection of chapters on a common topic
- Good place to find a summary on a set of research
BvH
