17: Civil rights and social movements in the Americas post-1945
This section examines the origins, nature, challenges and achievements of civil rights and social movements after 1945.
Causes of some of these movements may be pre-1945. These movements represented the attempts to achieve equality
for groups that were not recognized or accepted as full members of society, and they challenged established authority and
attitudes.
Indigenous peoples and civil rights in the Americas
Canadian indigenous peoples
Indian Act 1876-1971
- The Act gave immense power to the Department of Indian Affairs, particularly in deciding who was an Indian and
what rights they had. Due to this act, most First Nations people were not integrated into mainstream Canadian
society. However, due to the important role Canadian indigenous people played in WW1 and WW2, the Canadian
government amended the act
1946: the government reviewed the management of the Indian Act and allowed First Nations leaders to
express their desires for autonomy
1951: a Land Claims Commission was created
1960: the right to vote was given
Challenges and Achievements
- Enfranchisement: Status Indians have such benefits as being exempt from paying income tax and some other
taxes, and getting special health care coverage, access to special funds to build structures such as homes and
schools. If a woman married a “non-status” man, she would become “enfranchised”. This led to greater
discrimination of First Nations women. Bill C-31 amended the Indian Act of 1985 and abolished enfranchisement
and restored status to those who had status removed through enfranchisement.
- Indigenous nationalism and organization: Post-war changes in the Indian Act created a new form of indigenous
nationalism. First Nations leaders from across the country created new associations to protect and promote their
rights. Inspired by the Red Paper and the AIM movement in the US, a new Red Power movement emerged with a
new tactic of direct action versus lobbying.
US indigenous peoples
- In the late 1950s and into the 1970s, American Indians living and legal circumstances lagged behind every other
group in the US: they were the least prosperous and least healthy ethnic group. For example, indigenous
employment was 10 times the national rate and life expectancy was 20 years less than other Americans.
- After 1945, Native American activism increased as a result of the Second World War. New and more militant
Indian organizations such as NIYC and AIM were established. They publicized continuing indigenous problems in
occupations, litigation and writings. The federal government responded with greater aid and support for self-
determination, although clashes over land use and possession and cultural practices continued.
Government policies that led to an indigenous civil rights movement
- Dawes Act of 1887: the purpose was to assimilate Indians into mainstream American society and eliminate
traditional tribal landholding in factor of the ideal of the small-plot individual farmer by assigning small allotments
of land, causing assimilation.
The Truman years 1945-53
- Truman and Congress created the Indian Claims Commission, which aimed to compensate Native Americans for
previous unjust land loss. From 1946-68, the commission distributed around $400 million, which contributed to
tribal economic development.
Historiography
o Ironically, according to Native American historian Donald Fixico, although intended to
‘solve’ the ‘Indian problem’, the commission mobilized and solidified Native people while
making them keenly aware of the government’s long history of unfulfilled obligations.
- In 1950, Truman appointed Dillon Meyer as commissioner. Meyer intervened in tribal affairs such as selling
Pueblo tribal land without their consent. His relocation program aimed to get Native Americans jobs in the cities,
but many ended up on welfare and one-third returned to their reservations. Native Americans felt Meyer was
trying to destroy their civilization and asked that jobs be brought to reservations.
, The Eisenhower years 1953-61
Native American historian Angie Debo described the presidency of Eisenhower as
‘back to the bad old days’
- In order to try to stop taxpayers having to subsidize Native Americans, and to release reservation lands for white
economic development, Congress ‘terminated’ some reservations, especially where the Natives were few, poor,
and on land that might prove vulnerable to white men.
- Indians made less progress than African Americans in the Eisenhower years because:
African Americans had more contact with whites and used white traditions such as national organization
Native Americans were fewer, less urbanized, and culturally disoriented
Separate tribes and geographical segregation worked against effective national organizations and made
Native Americans easier prey for an administration
- The Cold War retarded Native American progress because it generated pressure for conformity and consensus,
and a desire to promote assimilation to US culture
The Johnson years 1963-69
- Native Americans were among the greatest beneficiaries of Johnson's War on Poverty, although some of them
disliked the resulting welfare dependency culture. Johnson appointed a Native American to head the BIA in 1966,
and his 1968 Civil Rights Act contained an ‘Indian Bill of Rights’, designed to protect Native Americans from both
white and tribal dictatorship. It faciliated access to better health services, housing, education, welfare and poverty
benefits, and employment (Native Americans had to rely heavily on federal job creation schemes as the limited
pool of skilled workers, poor communications and distance from markets made reservations unattractive to
private industry). However, some Native Americans resented the interference in tribal affairs.
The Nixon years 1969-74
- In 1975, Congress passed Nixon’s Indian Self-Determination Act, which restored the special legal status of Native
American tribes. It gave them most of the powers exercised by state governments, some control over federal
programmes on their lands, and increased control over education.
Historiography:
o Vine Deloria Jr and Clifford Lytle argued that the 1975 Indian Self- Determination and
Education Act and American Indian Policy Review Commission Act promised more than
they delivered, mostly due to insufficient funding.
o Others were more positive. Stephen Cornell said Native Americans gained more
influence over federal actions and over their own financial and organizational resources.
o Donald Parman argued that the educational provisions were successful, especially in the
growth of community colleges, and that the 1975 legislation paved the way for other
helpful laws such as the Indian Health Care Improvement Act (1976).
Native American assertiveness 1960-80
- During the 19605’ rights revolution Natives gained in self-confidence and became more assertive, using direct
action to attain their goals, and asking to be called Native Americans rather than Indians.
- Native Americans directed their protests against all levels of government. An old Washington state treaty took
Native American land but left them exclusive fishing areas. State courts closed river areas to Native American
fishermen in 1964. Inspired by African American sit-ins (see page 73), the NIYC staged a‘fish-in’ to remind white
Americans of Native American treaty rights. In 1968 the Supreme Court ruled in favour of Native rights under the
treaty, but said that the state could ‘regulate all fishing’so long as it did not disciminate against the Native
Americans. Washington state authorities ignored the ruling and continued to arrest Indian fishermen. Protests,
raids and arrests continued into the 1970s.
This section examines the origins, nature, challenges and achievements of civil rights and social movements after 1945.
Causes of some of these movements may be pre-1945. These movements represented the attempts to achieve equality
for groups that were not recognized or accepted as full members of society, and they challenged established authority and
attitudes.
Indigenous peoples and civil rights in the Americas
Canadian indigenous peoples
Indian Act 1876-1971
- The Act gave immense power to the Department of Indian Affairs, particularly in deciding who was an Indian and
what rights they had. Due to this act, most First Nations people were not integrated into mainstream Canadian
society. However, due to the important role Canadian indigenous people played in WW1 and WW2, the Canadian
government amended the act
1946: the government reviewed the management of the Indian Act and allowed First Nations leaders to
express their desires for autonomy
1951: a Land Claims Commission was created
1960: the right to vote was given
Challenges and Achievements
- Enfranchisement: Status Indians have such benefits as being exempt from paying income tax and some other
taxes, and getting special health care coverage, access to special funds to build structures such as homes and
schools. If a woman married a “non-status” man, she would become “enfranchised”. This led to greater
discrimination of First Nations women. Bill C-31 amended the Indian Act of 1985 and abolished enfranchisement
and restored status to those who had status removed through enfranchisement.
- Indigenous nationalism and organization: Post-war changes in the Indian Act created a new form of indigenous
nationalism. First Nations leaders from across the country created new associations to protect and promote their
rights. Inspired by the Red Paper and the AIM movement in the US, a new Red Power movement emerged with a
new tactic of direct action versus lobbying.
US indigenous peoples
- In the late 1950s and into the 1970s, American Indians living and legal circumstances lagged behind every other
group in the US: they were the least prosperous and least healthy ethnic group. For example, indigenous
employment was 10 times the national rate and life expectancy was 20 years less than other Americans.
- After 1945, Native American activism increased as a result of the Second World War. New and more militant
Indian organizations such as NIYC and AIM were established. They publicized continuing indigenous problems in
occupations, litigation and writings. The federal government responded with greater aid and support for self-
determination, although clashes over land use and possession and cultural practices continued.
Government policies that led to an indigenous civil rights movement
- Dawes Act of 1887: the purpose was to assimilate Indians into mainstream American society and eliminate
traditional tribal landholding in factor of the ideal of the small-plot individual farmer by assigning small allotments
of land, causing assimilation.
The Truman years 1945-53
- Truman and Congress created the Indian Claims Commission, which aimed to compensate Native Americans for
previous unjust land loss. From 1946-68, the commission distributed around $400 million, which contributed to
tribal economic development.
Historiography
o Ironically, according to Native American historian Donald Fixico, although intended to
‘solve’ the ‘Indian problem’, the commission mobilized and solidified Native people while
making them keenly aware of the government’s long history of unfulfilled obligations.
- In 1950, Truman appointed Dillon Meyer as commissioner. Meyer intervened in tribal affairs such as selling
Pueblo tribal land without their consent. His relocation program aimed to get Native Americans jobs in the cities,
but many ended up on welfare and one-third returned to their reservations. Native Americans felt Meyer was
trying to destroy their civilization and asked that jobs be brought to reservations.
, The Eisenhower years 1953-61
Native American historian Angie Debo described the presidency of Eisenhower as
‘back to the bad old days’
- In order to try to stop taxpayers having to subsidize Native Americans, and to release reservation lands for white
economic development, Congress ‘terminated’ some reservations, especially where the Natives were few, poor,
and on land that might prove vulnerable to white men.
- Indians made less progress than African Americans in the Eisenhower years because:
African Americans had more contact with whites and used white traditions such as national organization
Native Americans were fewer, less urbanized, and culturally disoriented
Separate tribes and geographical segregation worked against effective national organizations and made
Native Americans easier prey for an administration
- The Cold War retarded Native American progress because it generated pressure for conformity and consensus,
and a desire to promote assimilation to US culture
The Johnson years 1963-69
- Native Americans were among the greatest beneficiaries of Johnson's War on Poverty, although some of them
disliked the resulting welfare dependency culture. Johnson appointed a Native American to head the BIA in 1966,
and his 1968 Civil Rights Act contained an ‘Indian Bill of Rights’, designed to protect Native Americans from both
white and tribal dictatorship. It faciliated access to better health services, housing, education, welfare and poverty
benefits, and employment (Native Americans had to rely heavily on federal job creation schemes as the limited
pool of skilled workers, poor communications and distance from markets made reservations unattractive to
private industry). However, some Native Americans resented the interference in tribal affairs.
The Nixon years 1969-74
- In 1975, Congress passed Nixon’s Indian Self-Determination Act, which restored the special legal status of Native
American tribes. It gave them most of the powers exercised by state governments, some control over federal
programmes on their lands, and increased control over education.
Historiography:
o Vine Deloria Jr and Clifford Lytle argued that the 1975 Indian Self- Determination and
Education Act and American Indian Policy Review Commission Act promised more than
they delivered, mostly due to insufficient funding.
o Others were more positive. Stephen Cornell said Native Americans gained more
influence over federal actions and over their own financial and organizational resources.
o Donald Parman argued that the educational provisions were successful, especially in the
growth of community colleges, and that the 1975 legislation paved the way for other
helpful laws such as the Indian Health Care Improvement Act (1976).
Native American assertiveness 1960-80
- During the 19605’ rights revolution Natives gained in self-confidence and became more assertive, using direct
action to attain their goals, and asking to be called Native Americans rather than Indians.
- Native Americans directed their protests against all levels of government. An old Washington state treaty took
Native American land but left them exclusive fishing areas. State courts closed river areas to Native American
fishermen in 1964. Inspired by African American sit-ins (see page 73), the NIYC staged a‘fish-in’ to remind white
Americans of Native American treaty rights. In 1968 the Supreme Court ruled in favour of Native rights under the
treaty, but said that the state could ‘regulate all fishing’so long as it did not disciminate against the Native
Americans. Washington state authorities ignored the ruling and continued to arrest Indian fishermen. Protests,
raids and arrests continued into the 1970s.
