Midterm Study Objectives
N2060 Spring 2020
Chapter 1
Compare and contrast the two major classes of living cells.
Prokaryotes
o Lack a nucleus
o Lack membrane bound organelles
o Simple organisms
Cyanobacteria, bacteria, and Rickettsia
Eukaryotes
o Have a nucleus
o Have membrane bound organelles
o Complex organisms
Animals, plants, fungi, and protozoa
Identify and describe the three principal parts of a typical eukaryotic cell.
Plasma Membrane
o Surrounds the cell
o Made of phospholipid bilayer with proteins scattered across
o Provides shape and mobility
o Keeps the cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus together
o Controls intra-extracellular transportation and communication
o Have cellular receptors
o Assists in cell division
Cytoplasm
o Fluid filling between plasma membrane and the nucleus/organelles
o Contains cytosol, nucleus, and other intracellular organelles
o Stores necessary components
o Allows material to move throughout with little resistance
, Intracellular organelles
o Ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, peroxisomes, Golgi
complex, mitochondria, cytosol, and cytoskeleton
o Do all the functions such as metabolism, energy generation, protein
construction, digestion, etc.
Describe the structure, composition, and function of the plasma membrane.
Phospholipid bilayer of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
Interspersed with receptor and channel proteins floating on it
Fluid structure
Protects cell from invaders
Maintains electromagnetic and concentration gradients
Provide shape and allows for cellular mobility
Used to recognize other cells
Identify the location and main functions of plasma membrane proteins.
Distributed on the phospholipid bilayer nonuniformly
Act as gates for transportation
Able to act as enzymes and catalysts
Act as surface markers, signalers, and receptors
Able to adhere to other molecules, tissues, or cells
Describe the role of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) in the transfer of energy to drive cellular processes.
They’re created from chemical energy in carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids
Used to actively transport, contract muscles, and create organic molecules
Stores and transfers energy
ATP will release one of its three bonds to release its stored energy
ADP will release one of its two bonds to release its stored energy
ATP and ADP act as rechargeable batteries for the cell
,List examples of the following transport mechanisms: diffusion, passive-
mediated transport (facilitated diffusion), phagocytosis, pinocytosis, active
transport, osmosis, and hydrostatic pressure (filtration).
Diffusion = movement of a solute molecule from an area of greater solute
concentration to an area of lesser solute concentration. Moves along a
concentration gradient
o Example: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and the steroid hormones moving
across the cell membrane
Passive-mediated transport (facilitated diffusion) = diffusion across a protein gate
of a cell membrane down a concentration gradient without using energy
o Example: Aquaporins and ion channels
Phagocytosis = when large molecular substances are engulfed by the plasma
membrane and enter the cell so that they can be isolated and destroyed by
lysosomal enzymes
o Example: Macrophages consuming bacteria
Pinocytosis = cell ingestion of extracellular fluid and its contents and bits of the
plasma membrane
o Example: Cell taking in nearby nutrients
Active transport = diffusion across a protein gate of a cell membrane up a
concentration gradient by using energy
o Example: Sodium-Potassium pump (antiporter)
Osmosis = diffusion of water down a concentration gradient across a semi-
permeable membrane
o Example: Water entering a cell in a hypotonic solution
Hydrostatic pressure (filtration) = movement of water and solutes through a
membrane because of a greater pushing pressure (force) on one side of the
membrane than on the other side
o Example: Blood in the capillaries being pushed into interstitial tissue space
by the pressure
, Chapter 2
Compare and contrast cellular injury and adaptation (including the process and
components of cellular autodigestion).
Cellular Injury = damage to cells of tissues and organs causing cellular stress.
o Can be reversible or irreversible and acute or chronic
Can lead to cell death
o Can be initiated by chemicals, lack of necessary nutrients (glucose, O2,
etc.), infection, change in climate, genetics, malfunctioning immune
system, radiation, mechanical stress, material accumulation, etc.
o Can self-destruct by eating itself called cellular autodigestion or autophagy
Occurs when intracellular vesicles begin to engulf its own
organelles to digest and use for nutrients or energy. Will lead to cell
death if conditions do not change
Cellular Adaption = cell’s response to escape and protect itself from injury.
o Can be pathological or physiological.
o Not injured or healthy state, b/w the two
o Can inadvertently lead to future injury of the cell
o Types of adaption:
atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, dysplasia (atypical hyperplasia),
and metaplasia
Describe the following cellular adaptations: atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia,
dysplasia (atypical hyperplasia), and metaplasia.
Atrophy = decrease in cell size
Hypertrophy = increase in cell size
Hyperplasia = increase in cell number
Metaplasia = replacement of a mature cell type by a less mature cell type
Dysplasia (atypical hyperplasia) = deranged cell growth
Identify under which conditions the above-mentioned cellular adaptations occur.
N2060 Spring 2020
Chapter 1
Compare and contrast the two major classes of living cells.
Prokaryotes
o Lack a nucleus
o Lack membrane bound organelles
o Simple organisms
Cyanobacteria, bacteria, and Rickettsia
Eukaryotes
o Have a nucleus
o Have membrane bound organelles
o Complex organisms
Animals, plants, fungi, and protozoa
Identify and describe the three principal parts of a typical eukaryotic cell.
Plasma Membrane
o Surrounds the cell
o Made of phospholipid bilayer with proteins scattered across
o Provides shape and mobility
o Keeps the cytoplasm, organelles, and nucleus together
o Controls intra-extracellular transportation and communication
o Have cellular receptors
o Assists in cell division
Cytoplasm
o Fluid filling between plasma membrane and the nucleus/organelles
o Contains cytosol, nucleus, and other intracellular organelles
o Stores necessary components
o Allows material to move throughout with little resistance
, Intracellular organelles
o Ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, peroxisomes, Golgi
complex, mitochondria, cytosol, and cytoskeleton
o Do all the functions such as metabolism, energy generation, protein
construction, digestion, etc.
Describe the structure, composition, and function of the plasma membrane.
Phospholipid bilayer of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
Interspersed with receptor and channel proteins floating on it
Fluid structure
Protects cell from invaders
Maintains electromagnetic and concentration gradients
Provide shape and allows for cellular mobility
Used to recognize other cells
Identify the location and main functions of plasma membrane proteins.
Distributed on the phospholipid bilayer nonuniformly
Act as gates for transportation
Able to act as enzymes and catalysts
Act as surface markers, signalers, and receptors
Able to adhere to other molecules, tissues, or cells
Describe the role of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate
(ADP) in the transfer of energy to drive cellular processes.
They’re created from chemical energy in carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids
Used to actively transport, contract muscles, and create organic molecules
Stores and transfers energy
ATP will release one of its three bonds to release its stored energy
ADP will release one of its two bonds to release its stored energy
ATP and ADP act as rechargeable batteries for the cell
,List examples of the following transport mechanisms: diffusion, passive-
mediated transport (facilitated diffusion), phagocytosis, pinocytosis, active
transport, osmosis, and hydrostatic pressure (filtration).
Diffusion = movement of a solute molecule from an area of greater solute
concentration to an area of lesser solute concentration. Moves along a
concentration gradient
o Example: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and the steroid hormones moving
across the cell membrane
Passive-mediated transport (facilitated diffusion) = diffusion across a protein gate
of a cell membrane down a concentration gradient without using energy
o Example: Aquaporins and ion channels
Phagocytosis = when large molecular substances are engulfed by the plasma
membrane and enter the cell so that they can be isolated and destroyed by
lysosomal enzymes
o Example: Macrophages consuming bacteria
Pinocytosis = cell ingestion of extracellular fluid and its contents and bits of the
plasma membrane
o Example: Cell taking in nearby nutrients
Active transport = diffusion across a protein gate of a cell membrane up a
concentration gradient by using energy
o Example: Sodium-Potassium pump (antiporter)
Osmosis = diffusion of water down a concentration gradient across a semi-
permeable membrane
o Example: Water entering a cell in a hypotonic solution
Hydrostatic pressure (filtration) = movement of water and solutes through a
membrane because of a greater pushing pressure (force) on one side of the
membrane than on the other side
o Example: Blood in the capillaries being pushed into interstitial tissue space
by the pressure
, Chapter 2
Compare and contrast cellular injury and adaptation (including the process and
components of cellular autodigestion).
Cellular Injury = damage to cells of tissues and organs causing cellular stress.
o Can be reversible or irreversible and acute or chronic
Can lead to cell death
o Can be initiated by chemicals, lack of necessary nutrients (glucose, O2,
etc.), infection, change in climate, genetics, malfunctioning immune
system, radiation, mechanical stress, material accumulation, etc.
o Can self-destruct by eating itself called cellular autodigestion or autophagy
Occurs when intracellular vesicles begin to engulf its own
organelles to digest and use for nutrients or energy. Will lead to cell
death if conditions do not change
Cellular Adaption = cell’s response to escape and protect itself from injury.
o Can be pathological or physiological.
o Not injured or healthy state, b/w the two
o Can inadvertently lead to future injury of the cell
o Types of adaption:
atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, dysplasia (atypical hyperplasia),
and metaplasia
Describe the following cellular adaptations: atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia,
dysplasia (atypical hyperplasia), and metaplasia.
Atrophy = decrease in cell size
Hypertrophy = increase in cell size
Hyperplasia = increase in cell number
Metaplasia = replacement of a mature cell type by a less mature cell type
Dysplasia (atypical hyperplasia) = deranged cell growth
Identify under which conditions the above-mentioned cellular adaptations occur.
