Part 1 — Sexual Selection and Human Reproductive Behaviour:
• Sexual selection explains why certain disadvantageous characteristics are still passed on. This is
because they may be advantageous for sexual selection, such as males who behave aggressively
and females with traits of fertility. This determines which genes are passed onto offspring, through
heredity.
• Anisogamy - differences between male and female gametes. They may be in terms of the size of
the gametes, the energy invested into their production, whether they are static or mobile, and the
intervals at which they are produced.
• Inter-sexual selection - strategies that each sex uses to attract the other. This is the ‘quality over
quantity’ approach and is favoured by females because they invest more energy into the development
of ova, which are produced in limited numbers at intervals across their lives, and the fact that females
experience more post-sex responsibility compared to males. Therefore, a female will be choosier as
to who she mates with, due to her limited reproductive resources.
• Fisher’s hypothesis - through a female choosing to mate with an attractive male, her offspring will
also grow up to be attractive, and so are themselves likely to attract females to mate with.
• Intra-sexual selection - strategies used within sexes to attract males. This is the ‘quantity over
quality’ approach and is favoured by males because they produce sperm continuously throughout
their lifetime, with little energy investment and limited post-coital responsibility. Therefore, from an
evolutionary perspective, it is most effective to impregnate as many women as possible, in order to
ensure the survival of their genes.
• Examples of intra-sexual selection strategies would be males behaving aggressively and being
protective of their female, being larger, as well as possessing certain facial and physical
characteristics
+ Research suggests that there - Partner preferences are being + There is also evidence
are sexual selection pressures influenced by rapidly changing supporting the idea that
which are still relevant in norms of sexual behaviour. females are more selective.
modern times, such as the hip These could have come about Researchers found that 75% of
to waist ratio. If this ratio is due to cultural factors, such as college males, compared to 0%
around 0.7, then this the availability of contraception. of females, would be willing to
demonstrates to potential Women’s greater role in the sleep with a stranger if this
mates that the female is fertile workplace means they are no stranger had approached them
and able to carry children over longer dependent on men to and complimented them! This
a long period of time, with birth provide for them. Mate supports the idea that men
being easier when the female preferences are therefore the have an evolutionary tendency
has larger hips and a narrower outcome of social and to want to impregnate as many
waist. Thus, some evolutionary environmental influences; thus, women as possible, due to the
pressures are still relevant in the theory should account for high rates of sperm production
modern times. these influences. and little energy required to do
so.
Part 2 — Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure:
• Self-disclosure refers to the information we choose to reveal about ourselves within a romantic
relationship. The aim is to increase the intimacy and understanding between two individuals, under
the condition that the self-disclosure is reciprocal.
• Altman and Taylor have proposed the ‘social penetration’ theory, which suggests that the
process of self-disclosure allows one person to penetrate deeper into the life of their partner, thus
increasing intimacy and trust.
• Revealing intimate details about oneself at the beginning of a relationship may be detrimental effects
e.g. revealing ‘too much information’. This demonstrates to the other person that at least one person
in the relationship does not trust the other.
, • Reis and Shaver suggest that there are two elements of the social penetration theory - depth and
breadth. There is a positive correlation between the increasing quality and trust within a relationship,
coinciding with increasing depth and breadth of revealed information.
• For example, high levels of breadth result in low levels of depth due to many topics being ‘off limits’,
thus reducing the emotional impact and empathy shown by the other person. Therefore, the key to
maintaining a developing and intimate relationship is a balance between depth and breadth, through
the reciprocal self-disclosure of information from both parties.
+ An increased understanding — A key methodological issue + However, there is research
of the importance of with the use of correlational support for the predictions
self-disclosure in building and studies is that causal made by social penetration
maintaining intimacy within conclusions cannot be made. theory, Researchers found
relationships can have a For example, simply because that, on the basis of diary
real-life practical advantage. there is a correlation between entries, high levels of intimacy
Researchers found that for satisfaction and self-disclosure and trust were strongly
couples with high levels of does not necessarily mean that associated or correlated with
intimacy and commitment the former causes the latter. high levels of self-disclosure, in
within their relationships, over Correlational studies can never married couples. This suggests
half reported the use of establish cause and effect’ that the depth and breadth of
self-disclosure to maintain it. relationships between two self-disclosure is strongly
Therefore, this supports the variables because they may predictive of the intimacy and
use of therapies which focus also be affected by the ‘third quality of romantic
on increasing the depth and variable problem’. Therefore, relationships, which again
breadth of self-disclosure for correlational studies cannot be supports the validity of the
couples who struggle with relied upon to demonstrate the social penetration theory as an
intimacy, as well as increasing mechanism of self-disclosure in indicator of relationship quality.
trust within the relationship. relation to the quality of
relationships.
Part 3 — Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attractiveness:
• From an evolutionary perspective, there are certain physical traits which we are pre-disposed to find
attractive. For example, females with child-like faces are more likely to be viewed as attractive by
males because their facial features trigger an aggressive and protective trait in men, which gives the
female an evolutionary advantage.
• The halo effect suggests that we tend to associate highly attractive people with positive
characteristics, including personality and wealth, even though these factors may not be linked.
Therefore, we are more likely to view attractive people as trustworthy, honest, successful and more
sociable compared to their unattractive counterparts. These beliefs increase the likelihood that such
attractive people develop these traits, and so displays the process of a self-fulfilling prophecy.
• The key to a successful relationship, according to the Matching Hypothesis, is striking a balance
between the attractiveness of a mate and the realistic chances of attaining such a mate. This relies on
an assessment of one’s own attractiveness and ‘value’, so we are more likely to have a mate who is a
similar level to us. This lowers the chance of rejection by an unattainable individual and the potential
disappointment of a disproportionately less attractive mate.
• The idea of physical attractiveness being important to a relationship is not restricted to the ‘early’
stages. McNully et al found that physical attractiveness was still an important determinant of a
successful relationship, even after marriage.
— A psychologist found that + there is research support for + Although physical attraction
participants with low scores on the matching hypothesis. A is a relatively broad term, it is
the MAHCO scale were less meta-analysis was conducted not affected extensively by
likely to be attracted to an of 17 studies and a significant cultural relativism, with both
individual as a potential partner correlation in ratings of individualist and collectivist
based purely on their physical attractiveness between cultures finding similar features
attractiveness. This suggests romantic partners. This is good attractive. These features
• Sexual selection explains why certain disadvantageous characteristics are still passed on. This is
because they may be advantageous for sexual selection, such as males who behave aggressively
and females with traits of fertility. This determines which genes are passed onto offspring, through
heredity.
• Anisogamy - differences between male and female gametes. They may be in terms of the size of
the gametes, the energy invested into their production, whether they are static or mobile, and the
intervals at which they are produced.
• Inter-sexual selection - strategies that each sex uses to attract the other. This is the ‘quality over
quantity’ approach and is favoured by females because they invest more energy into the development
of ova, which are produced in limited numbers at intervals across their lives, and the fact that females
experience more post-sex responsibility compared to males. Therefore, a female will be choosier as
to who she mates with, due to her limited reproductive resources.
• Fisher’s hypothesis - through a female choosing to mate with an attractive male, her offspring will
also grow up to be attractive, and so are themselves likely to attract females to mate with.
• Intra-sexual selection - strategies used within sexes to attract males. This is the ‘quantity over
quality’ approach and is favoured by males because they produce sperm continuously throughout
their lifetime, with little energy investment and limited post-coital responsibility. Therefore, from an
evolutionary perspective, it is most effective to impregnate as many women as possible, in order to
ensure the survival of their genes.
• Examples of intra-sexual selection strategies would be males behaving aggressively and being
protective of their female, being larger, as well as possessing certain facial and physical
characteristics
+ Research suggests that there - Partner preferences are being + There is also evidence
are sexual selection pressures influenced by rapidly changing supporting the idea that
which are still relevant in norms of sexual behaviour. females are more selective.
modern times, such as the hip These could have come about Researchers found that 75% of
to waist ratio. If this ratio is due to cultural factors, such as college males, compared to 0%
around 0.7, then this the availability of contraception. of females, would be willing to
demonstrates to potential Women’s greater role in the sleep with a stranger if this
mates that the female is fertile workplace means they are no stranger had approached them
and able to carry children over longer dependent on men to and complimented them! This
a long period of time, with birth provide for them. Mate supports the idea that men
being easier when the female preferences are therefore the have an evolutionary tendency
has larger hips and a narrower outcome of social and to want to impregnate as many
waist. Thus, some evolutionary environmental influences; thus, women as possible, due to the
pressures are still relevant in the theory should account for high rates of sperm production
modern times. these influences. and little energy required to do
so.
Part 2 — Factors Affecting Attraction: Self-Disclosure:
• Self-disclosure refers to the information we choose to reveal about ourselves within a romantic
relationship. The aim is to increase the intimacy and understanding between two individuals, under
the condition that the self-disclosure is reciprocal.
• Altman and Taylor have proposed the ‘social penetration’ theory, which suggests that the
process of self-disclosure allows one person to penetrate deeper into the life of their partner, thus
increasing intimacy and trust.
• Revealing intimate details about oneself at the beginning of a relationship may be detrimental effects
e.g. revealing ‘too much information’. This demonstrates to the other person that at least one person
in the relationship does not trust the other.
, • Reis and Shaver suggest that there are two elements of the social penetration theory - depth and
breadth. There is a positive correlation between the increasing quality and trust within a relationship,
coinciding with increasing depth and breadth of revealed information.
• For example, high levels of breadth result in low levels of depth due to many topics being ‘off limits’,
thus reducing the emotional impact and empathy shown by the other person. Therefore, the key to
maintaining a developing and intimate relationship is a balance between depth and breadth, through
the reciprocal self-disclosure of information from both parties.
+ An increased understanding — A key methodological issue + However, there is research
of the importance of with the use of correlational support for the predictions
self-disclosure in building and studies is that causal made by social penetration
maintaining intimacy within conclusions cannot be made. theory, Researchers found
relationships can have a For example, simply because that, on the basis of diary
real-life practical advantage. there is a correlation between entries, high levels of intimacy
Researchers found that for satisfaction and self-disclosure and trust were strongly
couples with high levels of does not necessarily mean that associated or correlated with
intimacy and commitment the former causes the latter. high levels of self-disclosure, in
within their relationships, over Correlational studies can never married couples. This suggests
half reported the use of establish cause and effect’ that the depth and breadth of
self-disclosure to maintain it. relationships between two self-disclosure is strongly
Therefore, this supports the variables because they may predictive of the intimacy and
use of therapies which focus also be affected by the ‘third quality of romantic
on increasing the depth and variable problem’. Therefore, relationships, which again
breadth of self-disclosure for correlational studies cannot be supports the validity of the
couples who struggle with relied upon to demonstrate the social penetration theory as an
intimacy, as well as increasing mechanism of self-disclosure in indicator of relationship quality.
trust within the relationship. relation to the quality of
relationships.
Part 3 — Factors Affecting Attraction: Physical Attractiveness:
• From an evolutionary perspective, there are certain physical traits which we are pre-disposed to find
attractive. For example, females with child-like faces are more likely to be viewed as attractive by
males because their facial features trigger an aggressive and protective trait in men, which gives the
female an evolutionary advantage.
• The halo effect suggests that we tend to associate highly attractive people with positive
characteristics, including personality and wealth, even though these factors may not be linked.
Therefore, we are more likely to view attractive people as trustworthy, honest, successful and more
sociable compared to their unattractive counterparts. These beliefs increase the likelihood that such
attractive people develop these traits, and so displays the process of a self-fulfilling prophecy.
• The key to a successful relationship, according to the Matching Hypothesis, is striking a balance
between the attractiveness of a mate and the realistic chances of attaining such a mate. This relies on
an assessment of one’s own attractiveness and ‘value’, so we are more likely to have a mate who is a
similar level to us. This lowers the chance of rejection by an unattainable individual and the potential
disappointment of a disproportionately less attractive mate.
• The idea of physical attractiveness being important to a relationship is not restricted to the ‘early’
stages. McNully et al found that physical attractiveness was still an important determinant of a
successful relationship, even after marriage.
— A psychologist found that + there is research support for + Although physical attraction
participants with low scores on the matching hypothesis. A is a relatively broad term, it is
the MAHCO scale were less meta-analysis was conducted not affected extensively by
likely to be attracted to an of 17 studies and a significant cultural relativism, with both
individual as a potential partner correlation in ratings of individualist and collectivist
based purely on their physical attractiveness between cultures finding similar features
attractiveness. This suggests romantic partners. This is good attractive. These features
