Part two: Nazi Germany,1933-1945 (A-level only)
Year 13 content
The Nazi Dictatorship, 1933–1939 (A-level only)
• Hitler’s consolidation of power, March 1933–1934: governmental and administrative
change and the establishment of the one-party state; the Night of the Long Knives
and the impact of the death of President Hindenburg
• The 'Terror State': the police, including the SS and Gestapo; the courts; extent,
effectiveness and limitations of opposition and non-conformity; propaganda: aims,
methods and impact; extent of totalitarianism
• Economic policies and the degree of economic recovery; Schacht; Goering; the
industrial elites
• Social policies: young people; women; workers; the churches; the degree of
Volksgemeinschaft; benefits and drawbacks of Nazi rule
The Racial State, 1933–1941 (A-level only)
• The radicalisation of the state: Nazi racial ideology; policies towards the mentally ill,
asocials, homosexuals, members of religious sects, the Roma and Sinti
• Anti-Semitism: policies and actions towards the Jews, including the boycott of Jewish
shops and the Nuremberg Laws
• The development of anti-Semitic policies and actions; the effect of the Anschluss;
Reichkristallnacht; emigration; the impact of the war against Poland
• The treatment of Jews in the early years of war: the Einsatzgruppen; ghettos and
deportations
The impact of War, 1939–1945 (A-level only)
• Rationing, indoctrination, propaganda and morale; the changing impact of war on
different sections of society including the elites, workers, women and youth
• The wartime economy and the work of Speer; the impact of bombing; the
mobilisation of the labour force and prisoners of war
• Policies towards the Jews and the ‘untermenschen’ during wartime; the Wannsee
Conference and the 'Final Solution'
• Opposition and resistance in wartime including students, churchmen, the army and
civilian critics; assassination attempts and the July Bomb Plot; overview of the Nazi
state by 1945
, German Democracy & Nazism 1918- 1945: Year 13
Hitler’s consolidation of power, March 1933 to The creation of a one-party state
august 1934
In the Nazi Volksgemeinshaft, therefore, there could be no
§ For Hitler and his Nazi Party, coming to parties other than the Nazi Party. By the middle of July 1933,
power in January 1933 was the beginning this ambition = reality. This was achieved in a number of
of a national socialist revolution. stages:
§ Many Nazis, however, especially the SA, § The KPD was effectively banned after the Reichstag fire in
had a very different view of the Nazi February. Most of the communists who had not been
revolution- cause continuing tensions arrested and imprisoned in concentration camps had fled
between Hitler and the SA into exile.
§ Having stood up to Hitler in the Reichstag debate on the
§ For Hitler, the Nazi revolution began with Enabling Act in March, the SPD continued to voice its
acquiring dictatorial power- then continued opposition to the regime until it was outlawed as a ‘party
hostile to the nation and the state’ on 22 June 1933.
with the elimination of non-Nazi political
parties and other independent § Realizing that their days as political parties were numbered,
organisations, together with Nazi control the DNVP and the Centre Party dissolved themselves – the
over the institutions of the state at both DNVP on 27 June and the Centre Party on 5 July.
central and local government level. § On 14 July 1933, the Law against the Formation of New
Parties outlawed all non-Nazi political parties.
Centralisation of power over local government
§ The Weimar Republic - federal state - large number of powers were devolved to state governments. Each state
controlled its own police force.
§ In July 1932- Prussian state government - dismissed by Papen & Reich Commissioner had been appointed to run
the state. In Hitler’s cabinet after January 1933 this position was held by Goering= paved the way for
centralisation of power within the whole Reich, which the Nazis began in March 1933.
§ The Nazi Party had its own organisational structures at both national and local level. At state level the Nazi
leaders, known as Gauleiters, wanted to control local government and many of them took over the roles of Reich
Governors
The civil service Trade Unions:
§ The Nazis regarded the Civil Service as an obstacle to § Great depression had severely weakened them
their exercise of dictatorial power. Many local § Trade union premises were occupied by the SA
officials were forced to resign and were replaced by and the SS, union funds were confiscated and
Nazi Party appointees, most of whom had no many of the leaders were sent to concentration
experience of government. camps
§ The Nazi SA also began to place Party officials in § DAF, German Labour Front became the largest
government offices to ensure that civil servants organisation in Nazi Germany
were carrying out the orders of the regime. All of
this placed the Nazis firmly in control. Show trials,
‘’peoples courts’’ increased crimes carrying death
penalty
,The Knight of the long Knives: 29th/ 30th June 1934
Ernst Rohm: 1887-1934
§ Professional soldier - rose to the ranks of captain in the First World War. He joined the Freikorps after this
§ Rohm recruited Hitler to infiltrate the German workers party but was impressed by his oratory became his friend
and joined the party. Spied on political parties
§ Helped form the SA
gf
Why might Hitler not like him?
§ He once said he had more in common with communists than the bourgeoise
§ Do not share same opinions on the Revolution
§ Was homosexual and drank heavily
§ Tension grew over his view that the SA should be a major force for radical revolution
§ 3 million SA expecting a 2nd revolution made worse by Rohm making speeches of further revolution
Events:
§ On 30 June 1934 at the prison in Munich, the leader of the Nazi SA, Ernst Röhm, was executed by two SS officers.
§ Earlier that day SS - arrested Röhm and other SA leaders at a lakeside hotel Bad Wiessee Hotel
§ Part of a wide-ranging purge of the SA Hitler had ordered, as organisation had outlived its usefulness- becoming
an embarrassment.
§ Hitler ordered that a revolver be left in Röhm’s cell, but Röhm refused to commit suicide. ‘If I am to be killed,’ he
was resorted to have said, ‘let Adolf do it himself = shot at point-blank range. One of the final acts in Hitler’s
consolidation of power in 1933–34.
The ambitions of the SA and its leader Röhm were regarded as a serious threat by the army leaders- summer of 1934
SA units began stopping army convoys and confiscating weapons and supplies
At least 84 were executed and another 1000 or more were arrested. The victims included Röhm and other leaders of
the SA, but Hitler took opportunity to remove other opponents Schleicher, Gregor Strasser and Gustav von Kahr.
Papen himself was spared death
When Hitler addressed the Reichstag on 13 July, he accepted full responsibility for the executions. He was acting, he
said, as the ‘supreme judge’ of the German people - compelled to save the country from an SA coup.
§ This secured army’s support. Hitler also gained public support for his apparently decisive actions.
§ SA declined sharply after the purge. October 1935 membership - declined to 1.6 million. Without Röhm as its
leader, its political power was destroyed.
§ Violence and terror remained vital weapons in the Nazi Party’s efforts to retain political control but, after the
Night of the Long Knives, the SS controlled the terror machine.
§ After the events of June 1934, violence and terror were used more systematically and in a more controlled manner
The impact of President Hindenburg’s death: Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934.
After death in 1934, Hitler moved quickly to merge the offices of chancellor and President, thereby making himself the
undisputed leader of Germany- the Fuhrer. Before his death, Hindenburg - so concerned by excesses of the SA -
considered handing power to army and dismissing Hitler- views shared by army commanders and Papen- Hitler left in no
doubt that, unless he brought the SA under control, he couldn’t have army’s support
After the night of the long knives- the army had no objections to this and Hitler was able to achieve his aim. Soldiers
had to swear an oath of allegiance to Hitler- giving him more control over the army. On 19 August, a plebiscite was held
to get the German people’s seal of approval on Hitler’s appointment as Führer and Reich Chancellor- 89.9% approved
,Tensions:
§ Hitler was able to declare that the Nazi revolution was over. He had acquired dictatorial powers, all other parties had
been banned or had voluntarily dissolved themselves and the process of Gleichschaltung had been completed.
§ For Ernst Röhm the Nazi revolution was far from complete and the SA were determined to continue with their
violence until they had achieved the Second Revolution. Chief among Röhm’s aims was for the SA to become the
nucleus of a new national militia that would eventually absorb and replace the existing army.
§ With a combined SA and Stahlhelm membership of 4.5 million in January 1934, Röhm’s forces already vastly
outnumbered the army.
§ However, since the summer of 1933 the role and importance of the SA had declined. In August 1933, they had lost
their ‘auxiliary police’ status and were subject to stricter regulations over their powers of arrest. In the election
campaign of November 1933, there was only one party, hence there was no longer a need for SA violence and
intimidation.SA members became disillusioned and restless
Röhm was the leader of the SA
§ He had a lot of support from the SA and they were very loyal to him
§ Some members of the SA would have preferred him to be the leader of the NAZI’s
§ He was very loyal to Hitler, hut he didn’t get along with other leading NAZI’s like Goerring and Himmler
§ Hitler was paranoid that Rohm was trying to be the leader of the NAZI’s
1. Rohm was staying at the hotel Hansel Bauer
2. Hitler with numerous detectives approach the hotel quietly, tells his driver Rohm is planning a coup
3. Hitler meets with Röhm in the hotel bedroom,
4. Rohm is dragged out of his room and arrested
5. Over the weekend, Röhm and over 200 SA leaders and other opponents are murdered including von Schleicher
Evidence he was plotting Evidence he was not plotting
Rohm did not agree with Hitler on everything like the Hitler’s own driver could not believe he was planning a coup
attention to workers
Rohm isn’t happy with the reduced power the SA have He was loyal, intelligent
now Hitler is in power.
He said Adolf is a swine, he’s betrayed them. very Went to relax, on leave for a spa
unhappy wants to be the new army
Real political aims Himmler had stirred the SA against each other
Hitler was cosying up to big businesses, Röhm did not like Goerring and Himmler convinces Hitler that Röhm was
this plotting
On arresting they did not resist as they thought it was a
mistake
Before his death, Hindenburg had become so concerned by the excesses of the SA that he considered handing power to
the army and dismissing Hitler. His views were shared by the army commanders and by Papen. Hitler was left in no
doubt that, unless he brought the SA under control, he could not count on the army’s support once Hindenburg had
died- trigger that led Hitler to launch the purge of the SA. With the threat of the SA removed, Blomberg and the army
leaders- no further objection to Hitler succeeding Hindenburg as President.
On 19 August, a plebiscite was held to get the German people’s seal of approval on Hitler’s appointment as Führer
(Leader) and Reich Chancellor- result was that 89.9% of the voters approved of the change.
This was the final act in the Nazi consolidation of power. Hitler had asserted his authority over his own party and had
become Führer and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. By the summer of 1934, Hitler’s dictatorship had been
firmly established. The consolidation of power had been achieved in little more than 18 months = combination of
terror, legal power and compromises with established conservative forces
.
,14: The terror state
§ Hitler was determined that the Nazi regime would not be bound by the law and legal systems. As a ‘man of
destiny’, who had been chosen to lead Third Reich Germany and express the will of the people, Hitler’s word was law
§ German citizens = no longer considered equal, lost rights/ freedom which were enshrined in Weimar constitution
§ The judges were not permitted to operate independently of GOV. Individuals could be arrested and imprisoned
without trial, without the police having any evidence against them. Law applied in arbitrary/inconsistent fashion.
The police system in the Third Reich
New political police forces alongside the existing criminal police. This created overlap and confusion as each competed
for their place. Consisted of a number of rival factions. By 1939, police system under control of Himmler from the Reich
security dept. headquarters. Infiltrates whole of society
The following forces existed:
§ The SS, controlled by Himmler
§ The SD, an intelligence gathering offshoot of the SS. Reinhard heydrich
§ The SA, controlled by Röhm, in 1933. The SA also acquired police powers to arrest and detain political prisoners
The SS (Schutzstaffel) – more systematic
§ Originally Hitler’s bodyguard - became main organisation that arrested political opponents ran concentration
camps. identification and arrest of political prisoners
§ Membership was based on perceptions of racial purity, discipline and absolute obedience to Fuhrer. Values for an
SS member were loyalty and honour, defined strictly in terms of adherence to Nazi ideology
§ Neutralised the SA as a political force in the NOFTLK, June 1934. SS concentration camp guards were deliberately
brutalised to remove any feelings of humanity might feel towards their prisoners
§ In 1936 Himmler and SS took overall control of the SD and Gestapo. In 1939, the Reich security department
headquarters = established placing all party state police forces under Himmler’s command
§ Violence and murder were instruments of state power. Approx. 240,000 members Biggest group
The Gestapo- ‘all knowing’
§ A secret police force whose role was the elimination of political opposition. Goering was in charge
§ A relatively small number of professional agents, mostly office-based. 20,000 in 1939 to cover the whole country.
§ Every block of flats/ residential street had its ‘block leader’, report suspicious activity. Even more information came
from voluntary denunciations of workmates and neighbours by ordinary Germans- motivated not by political
commitment but by personal grudges.
§ Relied on a network of informers and Nazi party activists who reported on their neighbours. The Gestapo
depended on information supplied by informants. Nazi Party activists, who were asked to spy on neighbours and
workmates, were one important source of information
§ Very successful created an atmosphere of fear and suspicion because people believed, wrongly, that there were
Gestapo agents everywhere. May end up in concentration camps. People adjusted their behaviour, so criticism
was stifled, and many lived in an atmosphere of fear and suspicion.
The SD (Sicherheitsdienst) 1931
§ The internal security service of the Nazi Party; an offshoot of the SS Led by Reinhard Heydrich, like the Gestapo, a
relatively small organisation
§ Similar role to Gestapo- staffed by amateurs. The SD was staffed not by professional police officers but by amateurs
who were committed Nazis.
§ Had responsibility for monitoring public opinion. After 1933, the SD’s role was intelligence gathering.
§ Identify those who voted ‘no’ in plebiscites, and to report on these to Hitler. By 1939, the SD had 50,000 officers, a
sign of how important its role
,Concentration Camps
§ Major tool used by the police agencies for imprisonment- greatly feared by many Germans
§ The first permanent camp was set up at Dachau in 1933, just outside Munich. 70 temp camps gradually become
more permanent
§ Originally - imprison political opponents- re-education= torture, beating and hard labour; after 1936,emphasis
changed to imprisoning those who were ‘undesirables’
§ From 1934, the SS took control and ran all camps
§ This change also coincided with an increase in violence and brutality in the camps. Camp guards- immunity from
prosecution by Himmler.
The courts and the justice system- brought into line ‘Gleichstaltung’
§ In 1933, judges and lawyers were mostly conservative but remained independent of Nazi’s control. Brought the
justice system under control:
§ The front of German law, April 1933. Made clear that the careers of those in the legal profession depended on
doing what the Nazis wanted
§ Nazi special courts in 1933 followed by people’s courts in 1934. Functioned alongside existing courts but dealt with
political crimes, had Nazi judged as well as professionals and there were no juries
The Nazis and the law:
§ Did not introduce a new constitution on legal system after 1933 instead they introduce some new deals – exposing
justice system. Applied in a random inconsistent fashion. No longer were all citizens treated as equal under the law
Through the use of propaganda, and through Gleichschaltung, the regime was able to gain acceptance from the
majority of people. The Nazi SS police system was presented as an instrument to protect the majority against the
corrupting influence of minorities.
Widespread acceptance of the regime - Third Reich was preferable to the disorder of the final Weimar Republic years.
Nevertheless, various individuals and groups tried to resist Nazi attempts to ‘coordinate’ them into the
Volksgemeinschaft.
The terms ‘Peoples’ Court’ and ‘popular justice’ portrayed repression and persecution as something that reflected the
will of the people. To a large extent this propaganda appears to have been effective. The Gestapo, with its limited
resources, could not have instilled fear and suspicion to the extent that it achieved without the cooperation of many
ordinary citizens. On the whole, there was very little active opposition and there was evidence of Hitler’s increasing
popularity. Life in Nazi Germany became depoliticised.
§ Cabinet are bypassed
The extent and effectiveness of opposition and non-conformity
§ In a one-party state, with repressive laws and an extensive police- opposition to the regime was illegal and
dangerous
§ Strong base of support for the regime and that Nazi propaganda and censorship was effective in controlling access
to information- limited active opposition once the dictatorship had been established in 1933. There were
individuals and organisations who resisted pressure to conform and to be ‘brought into line’
,Political opposition
§ SPD activists continued to campaign openly for the election campaign in March 1933 and suffered SA violence as a
result. SPD deputies bravely defied SA and SS intimidation to vote against the Enabling Act
§ The SPD was banned in 1933, members were arrested, ‘preventive custody and leadership fled into exile. Part
established small cells of supporters in factories and cities to continue propaganda work in secret - constant fear
of exposure and arrest by the Gestapo limited the scope of these illegal activities.
§ About 10% of KPD’s membership = killed by Nazis during 1933. KPD was more prepared than the SPD for secret,
underground organisation established a network of cells in industrial areas
§ Both SPD and KPD cells were broken up by the Gestapo. Priority of communist cells was very much on survival
since the party had ceased to exist and no serious challenge to the regime was possible.
§ Communists repressed by Nazis from start of regime- over half of members imprisoned during 1st year of reign
§ By 1935, Gestapo infiltrated party. Communists – not a huge threat
§ Small groups sending info back to Russia. Secretive meetings
§ Within gov: Papen pleaded for greater freedom in a speech some gov officials planned alternative gov and
maintained contacts w/ opponent
Trade union and worker resistance
§ In September 1935, 37 strikes were reported in Rhineland-Westphalia, Silesia and Württemberg. In the whole of
1937, a total of 250 strikes poor working conditions or low wages - widespread discontent over food prices.
§ Of the 25,000 workers who participated in strikes in 1935, 4000 spent short periods in prison. After a 17-minute
strike at the Opel car factory in 1936, seven ringleaders were arrested by the Gestapo and imprisoned
§ Official union resistance to the Nazis crumbled very quickly in 1933
§ Trade unions were absorbed into the labour front (DAF)
§ Nazi propaganda promoted the idea of class solidarity
§ Many workers were unhappy with their wages and working conditions and strikes did occur, although strikers
were imprisoned.
§ 1935 and 1936 400 strikes- economic discontent
§ Absenteeism and sabotage of machinery were used by workers to express dissatisfaction
§ A lot of workers- passive resistance
Resistance by the churches
§ Christian churches retained some independence from Nazi state but were under severe pressure to conform.
§ Church leaders- protect their organisations, often by avoiding conflict. Churches refused to display the swastika
§ Resistance by some protestants to the Reich church (under Nazi control) = formation of the confessional church,
led by Pastor Niemoller
§ Dissenting pastors had their salaries stopped, banned from teaching in schools- were arrested. 1937, over 700
pastors = imprisoned.
§ The roman catholic church in Germany - traditionally more independent of the state than protestant church
§ Catholic desire for self-preservation led to the concordat with the Nazi regime in 1933. Privileges granted to the
catholic church were under attack, the catholic church condemned the NAZI regime.
§ The 1937 Papal encyclical with burning grief protested Nazi pressure on Catholics to conform but led to
increased repression.
Their refusal to accept being part of a ‘coordinated’ Reich Church was due to three main factors:
§ They were trying to protect the independence of the Protestant Church from the Nazi regime.
§ They were resisting the attempt to impose the Aryan paragraph on the Church. This involved purging from the
Church any pastor who had converted from Judaism.
§ They were trying to defend orthodox Lutheran theology, which was based purely on the Bible.
,Resistance by young people:
§ Membership of the Hitler youth including the League of German girls, became compulsory in 1936
§ By the mid 1930’s there were signs of disillusionment with Hitler Youth, and of young people opting out
§ There was no organised resistance among young people but non-conformist behaviour such as through dress and
musical tastes provided ways to express individuality
White rose student resistance:
§ Led by Hans and Scholl, executed in 1943
§ Spread around leaflets
§ The Edelweiss pirates was the name for a lose collection of subgroups- bands mainly made up of boys aged 14-17
but also included a few girls- Largely localised groups, membership was mainly working class.
§ Earliest groups existed in 1934, c. estimated at 2,000 by 1939. Numbers grew most rapidly during war
§ Rebellious youth trying to escape the intrusive Nazi system
§ During the war, groups helped escape prisoners of war and distributed allied and communist leaflets.
§ Swing groups, illustrate the failure to dominate youth- heartening illustration of non-conformity. Influenced by
American Jazz
§ Go around causing problems, in cologne 12 people are hung, after death of a Gestapo officer
Resistance by the elites
§ Aristocratic civil servants and military officers shared many of nationalist ideals - were disdainful of their
methods. Some aristocratic generals – saw Hitler as threat to the old Germany, even after the NOFTLK-
significant, a military coup was the only way to get rid of the regime.
§ Pact of 1933 between Hitler, the army and big business leaders was vital to the Nazi consolidation of power
§ In 1937 Hitler purged General Fritsch, army commander in chief, General Blomberg after they expressed doubts
about his foreign policy. Nazi control of the army was strengthened by this
§ Despite the purge, there was resistance in September 1928 to Hitlers plan to annex Sudetenland area of
Czechoslovakia- risk war with Britain & France. General Beck (head of general staff) and other senior officers
planned to overthrow Hitler if war was declared, believing Germany was not prepared for this war. When war
was averted, the plot was averted
2 approaches: fundamentalist, societal
§ Fundamentalist = focuses on anti-Nazi political activism= small ‘elite’ groups whose positions of power gave them
some hope of overcoming the government or at least defeating some issues. Opposition located within the army
and churches.
§ Societal approach = (much broader) Resistaz
1. refusal to give ‘heil hitler’ greeting.
2. hanging church flag instead of Swastika flag.
3. objection to farm legislations by peasants.
Military failings 1942-44 =
§ Some members of the kreisau circle were supporters of the bomb plot on the 20 July 1944- lead by colonel Von
Stauffenberg. He placed a bomb in Hitlers briefing room - briefcase which held the bomb was moved minutes
prior to the explosion therefore leaving another failed attempt.
The extent and effectiveness of opposition:
§ In a society in which the regime demanded total subservience and conformity- a moan about the shortage of
essential foodstuffs - lead to arrest/criminal charges. Propaganda, indoctrination and repression had created an
atmosphere in which many Germans were prepared to support the regime.
§ All open opposition to the Nazis was crushed and the death penalty was used increasingly against
,The Methods of propaganda:
Aims of Nazi propaganda:
§ As the Nazi Party’s propaganda chief before 1933, Goebbels- very adept at using all kinds of media to convey
Party messages. Control, direct and censor the media to ensure that Nazi ideas and values were spread
effectively.
§ Oversaw work of organisations covering the work of the press, radio, film, literature, theatre, music, fine arts.
§ Goebbels = power to control who could and could not be employed in the cultural field. Those deemed to be
‘racially impure’ or ‘politically unreliable’ were purged. Those remaining in work quickly came to realise any
criticism would lead to the loss of their livelihoods. Hitler and Goebbels had differing opinions:
§ Hitler – bringing back traditional values. Vision
§ Goebbels- bringing everyone into line. Practical.
§ Glorify Nazi regime. Win people over. Censor
unacceptable
§ Appeal each social group- participation and unity
Newspaper:
§ In January 1933- 4700 privately owned newspapers= limited circulation.
§ October 1933- clause 14. Editors exclude anything ‘calculated to weaken strength of Germany’- subject to
punishment. Reich press chamber. Leads to banning of papers. 1500 left wing papers banned 1935
§ Socialist and communist newspapers were closed using the powers of the Decree for Protection of People/State.
§ Nazis began to buy up more newspapers- acquired 27 daily newspapers - combined circulation 2.4 million day
§ News agencies that supplied the press with information were all merged into a State-controlled organisation. The
result was that newspapers became bland and conformist, and the circulation figures of many declined.
§ RMVP controlled content of press. Nazi ownership of press expands. Grew from 3% in 1933- 69% 1939, 1944 82%
§ Newspapers keep their old names- so looks like there’s independence, variety – in reality not
Radio:
§ Hitler and Goebbels - spoken word - more impact than written communication. Used radio broadcasts effectively
in the 1932 and 1933 election campaigns. ‘peoples receiver’. Reached 58 million
§ Radio broadcasts gave Hitler - opportunity to talk directly to German people. 1933 - 50 such broadcasts.
Loudspeakers were set up in town squares and factories so that everyone could hear important speeches.
§ Goebbels promoted the mass production and sale of cheap radio sets- 70% of German households possessed a
radio set by 1939, highest proportion in the world.
§ Goebbels initiated a purge of those working in radio. As a result 13 per cent of staff were dismissed on racial or
political grounds.
§ In April 1934, all radio stations in Germany were brought under the control of the Reich Radio Company,
controlled by the Propaganda Ministry. Powerful tool for indoctrination- 1943, 16 million sets were sold.
§ Goebbels- ‘spiritual weapon of the totalitarian state. Becomes routine. Arrested for listening to foreign radio
The effectiveness of propaganda:
§ Nazi propaganda – all pervasive in German society.
§ Most Germans believed in the Hitler myth and in Nazi economic success. Foreign policy successes were also
popular
§ Evidence from gestapo reports suggest that Nazi rule was generally popular – some scepticism
§ Propaganda was most successful in winning support from young people and when it built upon existing beliefs
and values- opinions not yet formed
§ Germanys middle class shared Nazi’s hostility to communism and socialism
§ Less successful with older Germans, challenged deeply held beliefs, especially religious beliefs
, Film- Goebbels keen fan of cinema - recognised the potential of film as a propaganda medium.
§ Film could work on the subconscious, delivering subliminal messages and reinforcing prejudices.
§ Goebbels - personally responsible for approving every film made in Germany after 1933. Foreign films were not
banned outright- carefully checked for political/ racial content.
§ Most American films were banned, although the popularity of Disney cartoons meant that many of these were still
approved. Cinema- cheap way to entertain – spirits high
§ Between 1933 and 1945, over 1000 feature films were produced in Germany and cinema attendances increased
four- fold in the years 1933 to 1944. Of these films, only 14 per cent had an overtly political theme. The most
common types of films were historical dramas, comedies, and musicals. Recognise the value
§ All films, to some degree, contained political messages. Leadership was glorified; ‘Blood and soil’ (the close
relationship of race and land) was a common theme, as was the demonising of Jews and communists. Films with a
pacifist message were banned outright.
§ 1000 films produced- 1/6 overly propagandist. 1936- 76% all films financed by Nazis
§ Infamous – ‘eternal Jew’- parasitic race within the nation
Moreand
§Parades effective in keeping support for the regime than in indoctrinating people with Nazism. Need for entertainment
Spectacles:
took priority
§ In 1930, a Nazi Party pamphlet, Modern Political Propaganda, stated that ‘good discipline is the best
propaganda’ - best displayed in marches and parades.
§ Attracted bystanders who may be watching. May 1933 mass book burning
§ Combination of uniforms, disciplined mass movements, music, swastika flags= feeling of wishing to belong.
§ Theatricality of marches- heightened by the wearing of uniforms and medals, the carrying of banners and the
choreographed singing of party songs. Carrying of lighted torches in night-time processions was particularly
effective in capturing people’s attention.
§ Householders - support for national parades - swastika flags. Compliance was monitored by Nazi Party ‘block
leaders’ - failure to conform - reported to authorities. To be labelled ‘politically unreliable’ - person being
dismissed - his or her job or more serious consequences.
§ Ritual parades and flag waving were visual ‘proof’ that German people were solidly behind the regime, even
though this support was being manipulated by Goebbels and his Propaganda Ministry. ‘All that goes on behind
the backcloth’ said Goebbels, ‘belongs to stage management.’
§ The annual Party rallies at Nuremberg in September were stage-managed to achieve maximum theatrical effect.
Vast numbers of Party members attended; the 1937 rally involved some 100,000 people.
§ Hitler- manipulates mass emotions. 1936 Olympics- prove German and Aaryan race are superior
Year 13 content
The Nazi Dictatorship, 1933–1939 (A-level only)
• Hitler’s consolidation of power, March 1933–1934: governmental and administrative
change and the establishment of the one-party state; the Night of the Long Knives
and the impact of the death of President Hindenburg
• The 'Terror State': the police, including the SS and Gestapo; the courts; extent,
effectiveness and limitations of opposition and non-conformity; propaganda: aims,
methods and impact; extent of totalitarianism
• Economic policies and the degree of economic recovery; Schacht; Goering; the
industrial elites
• Social policies: young people; women; workers; the churches; the degree of
Volksgemeinschaft; benefits and drawbacks of Nazi rule
The Racial State, 1933–1941 (A-level only)
• The radicalisation of the state: Nazi racial ideology; policies towards the mentally ill,
asocials, homosexuals, members of religious sects, the Roma and Sinti
• Anti-Semitism: policies and actions towards the Jews, including the boycott of Jewish
shops and the Nuremberg Laws
• The development of anti-Semitic policies and actions; the effect of the Anschluss;
Reichkristallnacht; emigration; the impact of the war against Poland
• The treatment of Jews in the early years of war: the Einsatzgruppen; ghettos and
deportations
The impact of War, 1939–1945 (A-level only)
• Rationing, indoctrination, propaganda and morale; the changing impact of war on
different sections of society including the elites, workers, women and youth
• The wartime economy and the work of Speer; the impact of bombing; the
mobilisation of the labour force and prisoners of war
• Policies towards the Jews and the ‘untermenschen’ during wartime; the Wannsee
Conference and the 'Final Solution'
• Opposition and resistance in wartime including students, churchmen, the army and
civilian critics; assassination attempts and the July Bomb Plot; overview of the Nazi
state by 1945
, German Democracy & Nazism 1918- 1945: Year 13
Hitler’s consolidation of power, March 1933 to The creation of a one-party state
august 1934
In the Nazi Volksgemeinshaft, therefore, there could be no
§ For Hitler and his Nazi Party, coming to parties other than the Nazi Party. By the middle of July 1933,
power in January 1933 was the beginning this ambition = reality. This was achieved in a number of
of a national socialist revolution. stages:
§ Many Nazis, however, especially the SA, § The KPD was effectively banned after the Reichstag fire in
had a very different view of the Nazi February. Most of the communists who had not been
revolution- cause continuing tensions arrested and imprisoned in concentration camps had fled
between Hitler and the SA into exile.
§ Having stood up to Hitler in the Reichstag debate on the
§ For Hitler, the Nazi revolution began with Enabling Act in March, the SPD continued to voice its
acquiring dictatorial power- then continued opposition to the regime until it was outlawed as a ‘party
hostile to the nation and the state’ on 22 June 1933.
with the elimination of non-Nazi political
parties and other independent § Realizing that their days as political parties were numbered,
organisations, together with Nazi control the DNVP and the Centre Party dissolved themselves – the
over the institutions of the state at both DNVP on 27 June and the Centre Party on 5 July.
central and local government level. § On 14 July 1933, the Law against the Formation of New
Parties outlawed all non-Nazi political parties.
Centralisation of power over local government
§ The Weimar Republic - federal state - large number of powers were devolved to state governments. Each state
controlled its own police force.
§ In July 1932- Prussian state government - dismissed by Papen & Reich Commissioner had been appointed to run
the state. In Hitler’s cabinet after January 1933 this position was held by Goering= paved the way for
centralisation of power within the whole Reich, which the Nazis began in March 1933.
§ The Nazi Party had its own organisational structures at both national and local level. At state level the Nazi
leaders, known as Gauleiters, wanted to control local government and many of them took over the roles of Reich
Governors
The civil service Trade Unions:
§ The Nazis regarded the Civil Service as an obstacle to § Great depression had severely weakened them
their exercise of dictatorial power. Many local § Trade union premises were occupied by the SA
officials were forced to resign and were replaced by and the SS, union funds were confiscated and
Nazi Party appointees, most of whom had no many of the leaders were sent to concentration
experience of government. camps
§ The Nazi SA also began to place Party officials in § DAF, German Labour Front became the largest
government offices to ensure that civil servants organisation in Nazi Germany
were carrying out the orders of the regime. All of
this placed the Nazis firmly in control. Show trials,
‘’peoples courts’’ increased crimes carrying death
penalty
,The Knight of the long Knives: 29th/ 30th June 1934
Ernst Rohm: 1887-1934
§ Professional soldier - rose to the ranks of captain in the First World War. He joined the Freikorps after this
§ Rohm recruited Hitler to infiltrate the German workers party but was impressed by his oratory became his friend
and joined the party. Spied on political parties
§ Helped form the SA
gf
Why might Hitler not like him?
§ He once said he had more in common with communists than the bourgeoise
§ Do not share same opinions on the Revolution
§ Was homosexual and drank heavily
§ Tension grew over his view that the SA should be a major force for radical revolution
§ 3 million SA expecting a 2nd revolution made worse by Rohm making speeches of further revolution
Events:
§ On 30 June 1934 at the prison in Munich, the leader of the Nazi SA, Ernst Röhm, was executed by two SS officers.
§ Earlier that day SS - arrested Röhm and other SA leaders at a lakeside hotel Bad Wiessee Hotel
§ Part of a wide-ranging purge of the SA Hitler had ordered, as organisation had outlived its usefulness- becoming
an embarrassment.
§ Hitler ordered that a revolver be left in Röhm’s cell, but Röhm refused to commit suicide. ‘If I am to be killed,’ he
was resorted to have said, ‘let Adolf do it himself = shot at point-blank range. One of the final acts in Hitler’s
consolidation of power in 1933–34.
The ambitions of the SA and its leader Röhm were regarded as a serious threat by the army leaders- summer of 1934
SA units began stopping army convoys and confiscating weapons and supplies
At least 84 were executed and another 1000 or more were arrested. The victims included Röhm and other leaders of
the SA, but Hitler took opportunity to remove other opponents Schleicher, Gregor Strasser and Gustav von Kahr.
Papen himself was spared death
When Hitler addressed the Reichstag on 13 July, he accepted full responsibility for the executions. He was acting, he
said, as the ‘supreme judge’ of the German people - compelled to save the country from an SA coup.
§ This secured army’s support. Hitler also gained public support for his apparently decisive actions.
§ SA declined sharply after the purge. October 1935 membership - declined to 1.6 million. Without Röhm as its
leader, its political power was destroyed.
§ Violence and terror remained vital weapons in the Nazi Party’s efforts to retain political control but, after the
Night of the Long Knives, the SS controlled the terror machine.
§ After the events of June 1934, violence and terror were used more systematically and in a more controlled manner
The impact of President Hindenburg’s death: Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934.
After death in 1934, Hitler moved quickly to merge the offices of chancellor and President, thereby making himself the
undisputed leader of Germany- the Fuhrer. Before his death, Hindenburg - so concerned by excesses of the SA -
considered handing power to army and dismissing Hitler- views shared by army commanders and Papen- Hitler left in no
doubt that, unless he brought the SA under control, he couldn’t have army’s support
After the night of the long knives- the army had no objections to this and Hitler was able to achieve his aim. Soldiers
had to swear an oath of allegiance to Hitler- giving him more control over the army. On 19 August, a plebiscite was held
to get the German people’s seal of approval on Hitler’s appointment as Führer and Reich Chancellor- 89.9% approved
,Tensions:
§ Hitler was able to declare that the Nazi revolution was over. He had acquired dictatorial powers, all other parties had
been banned or had voluntarily dissolved themselves and the process of Gleichschaltung had been completed.
§ For Ernst Röhm the Nazi revolution was far from complete and the SA were determined to continue with their
violence until they had achieved the Second Revolution. Chief among Röhm’s aims was for the SA to become the
nucleus of a new national militia that would eventually absorb and replace the existing army.
§ With a combined SA and Stahlhelm membership of 4.5 million in January 1934, Röhm’s forces already vastly
outnumbered the army.
§ However, since the summer of 1933 the role and importance of the SA had declined. In August 1933, they had lost
their ‘auxiliary police’ status and were subject to stricter regulations over their powers of arrest. In the election
campaign of November 1933, there was only one party, hence there was no longer a need for SA violence and
intimidation.SA members became disillusioned and restless
Röhm was the leader of the SA
§ He had a lot of support from the SA and they were very loyal to him
§ Some members of the SA would have preferred him to be the leader of the NAZI’s
§ He was very loyal to Hitler, hut he didn’t get along with other leading NAZI’s like Goerring and Himmler
§ Hitler was paranoid that Rohm was trying to be the leader of the NAZI’s
1. Rohm was staying at the hotel Hansel Bauer
2. Hitler with numerous detectives approach the hotel quietly, tells his driver Rohm is planning a coup
3. Hitler meets with Röhm in the hotel bedroom,
4. Rohm is dragged out of his room and arrested
5. Over the weekend, Röhm and over 200 SA leaders and other opponents are murdered including von Schleicher
Evidence he was plotting Evidence he was not plotting
Rohm did not agree with Hitler on everything like the Hitler’s own driver could not believe he was planning a coup
attention to workers
Rohm isn’t happy with the reduced power the SA have He was loyal, intelligent
now Hitler is in power.
He said Adolf is a swine, he’s betrayed them. very Went to relax, on leave for a spa
unhappy wants to be the new army
Real political aims Himmler had stirred the SA against each other
Hitler was cosying up to big businesses, Röhm did not like Goerring and Himmler convinces Hitler that Röhm was
this plotting
On arresting they did not resist as they thought it was a
mistake
Before his death, Hindenburg had become so concerned by the excesses of the SA that he considered handing power to
the army and dismissing Hitler. His views were shared by the army commanders and by Papen. Hitler was left in no
doubt that, unless he brought the SA under control, he could not count on the army’s support once Hindenburg had
died- trigger that led Hitler to launch the purge of the SA. With the threat of the SA removed, Blomberg and the army
leaders- no further objection to Hitler succeeding Hindenburg as President.
On 19 August, a plebiscite was held to get the German people’s seal of approval on Hitler’s appointment as Führer
(Leader) and Reich Chancellor- result was that 89.9% of the voters approved of the change.
This was the final act in the Nazi consolidation of power. Hitler had asserted his authority over his own party and had
become Führer and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. By the summer of 1934, Hitler’s dictatorship had been
firmly established. The consolidation of power had been achieved in little more than 18 months = combination of
terror, legal power and compromises with established conservative forces
.
,14: The terror state
§ Hitler was determined that the Nazi regime would not be bound by the law and legal systems. As a ‘man of
destiny’, who had been chosen to lead Third Reich Germany and express the will of the people, Hitler’s word was law
§ German citizens = no longer considered equal, lost rights/ freedom which were enshrined in Weimar constitution
§ The judges were not permitted to operate independently of GOV. Individuals could be arrested and imprisoned
without trial, without the police having any evidence against them. Law applied in arbitrary/inconsistent fashion.
The police system in the Third Reich
New political police forces alongside the existing criminal police. This created overlap and confusion as each competed
for their place. Consisted of a number of rival factions. By 1939, police system under control of Himmler from the Reich
security dept. headquarters. Infiltrates whole of society
The following forces existed:
§ The SS, controlled by Himmler
§ The SD, an intelligence gathering offshoot of the SS. Reinhard heydrich
§ The SA, controlled by Röhm, in 1933. The SA also acquired police powers to arrest and detain political prisoners
The SS (Schutzstaffel) – more systematic
§ Originally Hitler’s bodyguard - became main organisation that arrested political opponents ran concentration
camps. identification and arrest of political prisoners
§ Membership was based on perceptions of racial purity, discipline and absolute obedience to Fuhrer. Values for an
SS member were loyalty and honour, defined strictly in terms of adherence to Nazi ideology
§ Neutralised the SA as a political force in the NOFTLK, June 1934. SS concentration camp guards were deliberately
brutalised to remove any feelings of humanity might feel towards their prisoners
§ In 1936 Himmler and SS took overall control of the SD and Gestapo. In 1939, the Reich security department
headquarters = established placing all party state police forces under Himmler’s command
§ Violence and murder were instruments of state power. Approx. 240,000 members Biggest group
The Gestapo- ‘all knowing’
§ A secret police force whose role was the elimination of political opposition. Goering was in charge
§ A relatively small number of professional agents, mostly office-based. 20,000 in 1939 to cover the whole country.
§ Every block of flats/ residential street had its ‘block leader’, report suspicious activity. Even more information came
from voluntary denunciations of workmates and neighbours by ordinary Germans- motivated not by political
commitment but by personal grudges.
§ Relied on a network of informers and Nazi party activists who reported on their neighbours. The Gestapo
depended on information supplied by informants. Nazi Party activists, who were asked to spy on neighbours and
workmates, were one important source of information
§ Very successful created an atmosphere of fear and suspicion because people believed, wrongly, that there were
Gestapo agents everywhere. May end up in concentration camps. People adjusted their behaviour, so criticism
was stifled, and many lived in an atmosphere of fear and suspicion.
The SD (Sicherheitsdienst) 1931
§ The internal security service of the Nazi Party; an offshoot of the SS Led by Reinhard Heydrich, like the Gestapo, a
relatively small organisation
§ Similar role to Gestapo- staffed by amateurs. The SD was staffed not by professional police officers but by amateurs
who were committed Nazis.
§ Had responsibility for monitoring public opinion. After 1933, the SD’s role was intelligence gathering.
§ Identify those who voted ‘no’ in plebiscites, and to report on these to Hitler. By 1939, the SD had 50,000 officers, a
sign of how important its role
,Concentration Camps
§ Major tool used by the police agencies for imprisonment- greatly feared by many Germans
§ The first permanent camp was set up at Dachau in 1933, just outside Munich. 70 temp camps gradually become
more permanent
§ Originally - imprison political opponents- re-education= torture, beating and hard labour; after 1936,emphasis
changed to imprisoning those who were ‘undesirables’
§ From 1934, the SS took control and ran all camps
§ This change also coincided with an increase in violence and brutality in the camps. Camp guards- immunity from
prosecution by Himmler.
The courts and the justice system- brought into line ‘Gleichstaltung’
§ In 1933, judges and lawyers were mostly conservative but remained independent of Nazi’s control. Brought the
justice system under control:
§ The front of German law, April 1933. Made clear that the careers of those in the legal profession depended on
doing what the Nazis wanted
§ Nazi special courts in 1933 followed by people’s courts in 1934. Functioned alongside existing courts but dealt with
political crimes, had Nazi judged as well as professionals and there were no juries
The Nazis and the law:
§ Did not introduce a new constitution on legal system after 1933 instead they introduce some new deals – exposing
justice system. Applied in a random inconsistent fashion. No longer were all citizens treated as equal under the law
Through the use of propaganda, and through Gleichschaltung, the regime was able to gain acceptance from the
majority of people. The Nazi SS police system was presented as an instrument to protect the majority against the
corrupting influence of minorities.
Widespread acceptance of the regime - Third Reich was preferable to the disorder of the final Weimar Republic years.
Nevertheless, various individuals and groups tried to resist Nazi attempts to ‘coordinate’ them into the
Volksgemeinschaft.
The terms ‘Peoples’ Court’ and ‘popular justice’ portrayed repression and persecution as something that reflected the
will of the people. To a large extent this propaganda appears to have been effective. The Gestapo, with its limited
resources, could not have instilled fear and suspicion to the extent that it achieved without the cooperation of many
ordinary citizens. On the whole, there was very little active opposition and there was evidence of Hitler’s increasing
popularity. Life in Nazi Germany became depoliticised.
§ Cabinet are bypassed
The extent and effectiveness of opposition and non-conformity
§ In a one-party state, with repressive laws and an extensive police- opposition to the regime was illegal and
dangerous
§ Strong base of support for the regime and that Nazi propaganda and censorship was effective in controlling access
to information- limited active opposition once the dictatorship had been established in 1933. There were
individuals and organisations who resisted pressure to conform and to be ‘brought into line’
,Political opposition
§ SPD activists continued to campaign openly for the election campaign in March 1933 and suffered SA violence as a
result. SPD deputies bravely defied SA and SS intimidation to vote against the Enabling Act
§ The SPD was banned in 1933, members were arrested, ‘preventive custody and leadership fled into exile. Part
established small cells of supporters in factories and cities to continue propaganda work in secret - constant fear
of exposure and arrest by the Gestapo limited the scope of these illegal activities.
§ About 10% of KPD’s membership = killed by Nazis during 1933. KPD was more prepared than the SPD for secret,
underground organisation established a network of cells in industrial areas
§ Both SPD and KPD cells were broken up by the Gestapo. Priority of communist cells was very much on survival
since the party had ceased to exist and no serious challenge to the regime was possible.
§ Communists repressed by Nazis from start of regime- over half of members imprisoned during 1st year of reign
§ By 1935, Gestapo infiltrated party. Communists – not a huge threat
§ Small groups sending info back to Russia. Secretive meetings
§ Within gov: Papen pleaded for greater freedom in a speech some gov officials planned alternative gov and
maintained contacts w/ opponent
Trade union and worker resistance
§ In September 1935, 37 strikes were reported in Rhineland-Westphalia, Silesia and Württemberg. In the whole of
1937, a total of 250 strikes poor working conditions or low wages - widespread discontent over food prices.
§ Of the 25,000 workers who participated in strikes in 1935, 4000 spent short periods in prison. After a 17-minute
strike at the Opel car factory in 1936, seven ringleaders were arrested by the Gestapo and imprisoned
§ Official union resistance to the Nazis crumbled very quickly in 1933
§ Trade unions were absorbed into the labour front (DAF)
§ Nazi propaganda promoted the idea of class solidarity
§ Many workers were unhappy with their wages and working conditions and strikes did occur, although strikers
were imprisoned.
§ 1935 and 1936 400 strikes- economic discontent
§ Absenteeism and sabotage of machinery were used by workers to express dissatisfaction
§ A lot of workers- passive resistance
Resistance by the churches
§ Christian churches retained some independence from Nazi state but were under severe pressure to conform.
§ Church leaders- protect their organisations, often by avoiding conflict. Churches refused to display the swastika
§ Resistance by some protestants to the Reich church (under Nazi control) = formation of the confessional church,
led by Pastor Niemoller
§ Dissenting pastors had their salaries stopped, banned from teaching in schools- were arrested. 1937, over 700
pastors = imprisoned.
§ The roman catholic church in Germany - traditionally more independent of the state than protestant church
§ Catholic desire for self-preservation led to the concordat with the Nazi regime in 1933. Privileges granted to the
catholic church were under attack, the catholic church condemned the NAZI regime.
§ The 1937 Papal encyclical with burning grief protested Nazi pressure on Catholics to conform but led to
increased repression.
Their refusal to accept being part of a ‘coordinated’ Reich Church was due to three main factors:
§ They were trying to protect the independence of the Protestant Church from the Nazi regime.
§ They were resisting the attempt to impose the Aryan paragraph on the Church. This involved purging from the
Church any pastor who had converted from Judaism.
§ They were trying to defend orthodox Lutheran theology, which was based purely on the Bible.
,Resistance by young people:
§ Membership of the Hitler youth including the League of German girls, became compulsory in 1936
§ By the mid 1930’s there were signs of disillusionment with Hitler Youth, and of young people opting out
§ There was no organised resistance among young people but non-conformist behaviour such as through dress and
musical tastes provided ways to express individuality
White rose student resistance:
§ Led by Hans and Scholl, executed in 1943
§ Spread around leaflets
§ The Edelweiss pirates was the name for a lose collection of subgroups- bands mainly made up of boys aged 14-17
but also included a few girls- Largely localised groups, membership was mainly working class.
§ Earliest groups existed in 1934, c. estimated at 2,000 by 1939. Numbers grew most rapidly during war
§ Rebellious youth trying to escape the intrusive Nazi system
§ During the war, groups helped escape prisoners of war and distributed allied and communist leaflets.
§ Swing groups, illustrate the failure to dominate youth- heartening illustration of non-conformity. Influenced by
American Jazz
§ Go around causing problems, in cologne 12 people are hung, after death of a Gestapo officer
Resistance by the elites
§ Aristocratic civil servants and military officers shared many of nationalist ideals - were disdainful of their
methods. Some aristocratic generals – saw Hitler as threat to the old Germany, even after the NOFTLK-
significant, a military coup was the only way to get rid of the regime.
§ Pact of 1933 between Hitler, the army and big business leaders was vital to the Nazi consolidation of power
§ In 1937 Hitler purged General Fritsch, army commander in chief, General Blomberg after they expressed doubts
about his foreign policy. Nazi control of the army was strengthened by this
§ Despite the purge, there was resistance in September 1928 to Hitlers plan to annex Sudetenland area of
Czechoslovakia- risk war with Britain & France. General Beck (head of general staff) and other senior officers
planned to overthrow Hitler if war was declared, believing Germany was not prepared for this war. When war
was averted, the plot was averted
2 approaches: fundamentalist, societal
§ Fundamentalist = focuses on anti-Nazi political activism= small ‘elite’ groups whose positions of power gave them
some hope of overcoming the government or at least defeating some issues. Opposition located within the army
and churches.
§ Societal approach = (much broader) Resistaz
1. refusal to give ‘heil hitler’ greeting.
2. hanging church flag instead of Swastika flag.
3. objection to farm legislations by peasants.
Military failings 1942-44 =
§ Some members of the kreisau circle were supporters of the bomb plot on the 20 July 1944- lead by colonel Von
Stauffenberg. He placed a bomb in Hitlers briefing room - briefcase which held the bomb was moved minutes
prior to the explosion therefore leaving another failed attempt.
The extent and effectiveness of opposition:
§ In a society in which the regime demanded total subservience and conformity- a moan about the shortage of
essential foodstuffs - lead to arrest/criminal charges. Propaganda, indoctrination and repression had created an
atmosphere in which many Germans were prepared to support the regime.
§ All open opposition to the Nazis was crushed and the death penalty was used increasingly against
,The Methods of propaganda:
Aims of Nazi propaganda:
§ As the Nazi Party’s propaganda chief before 1933, Goebbels- very adept at using all kinds of media to convey
Party messages. Control, direct and censor the media to ensure that Nazi ideas and values were spread
effectively.
§ Oversaw work of organisations covering the work of the press, radio, film, literature, theatre, music, fine arts.
§ Goebbels = power to control who could and could not be employed in the cultural field. Those deemed to be
‘racially impure’ or ‘politically unreliable’ were purged. Those remaining in work quickly came to realise any
criticism would lead to the loss of their livelihoods. Hitler and Goebbels had differing opinions:
§ Hitler – bringing back traditional values. Vision
§ Goebbels- bringing everyone into line. Practical.
§ Glorify Nazi regime. Win people over. Censor
unacceptable
§ Appeal each social group- participation and unity
Newspaper:
§ In January 1933- 4700 privately owned newspapers= limited circulation.
§ October 1933- clause 14. Editors exclude anything ‘calculated to weaken strength of Germany’- subject to
punishment. Reich press chamber. Leads to banning of papers. 1500 left wing papers banned 1935
§ Socialist and communist newspapers were closed using the powers of the Decree for Protection of People/State.
§ Nazis began to buy up more newspapers- acquired 27 daily newspapers - combined circulation 2.4 million day
§ News agencies that supplied the press with information were all merged into a State-controlled organisation. The
result was that newspapers became bland and conformist, and the circulation figures of many declined.
§ RMVP controlled content of press. Nazi ownership of press expands. Grew from 3% in 1933- 69% 1939, 1944 82%
§ Newspapers keep their old names- so looks like there’s independence, variety – in reality not
Radio:
§ Hitler and Goebbels - spoken word - more impact than written communication. Used radio broadcasts effectively
in the 1932 and 1933 election campaigns. ‘peoples receiver’. Reached 58 million
§ Radio broadcasts gave Hitler - opportunity to talk directly to German people. 1933 - 50 such broadcasts.
Loudspeakers were set up in town squares and factories so that everyone could hear important speeches.
§ Goebbels promoted the mass production and sale of cheap radio sets- 70% of German households possessed a
radio set by 1939, highest proportion in the world.
§ Goebbels initiated a purge of those working in radio. As a result 13 per cent of staff were dismissed on racial or
political grounds.
§ In April 1934, all radio stations in Germany were brought under the control of the Reich Radio Company,
controlled by the Propaganda Ministry. Powerful tool for indoctrination- 1943, 16 million sets were sold.
§ Goebbels- ‘spiritual weapon of the totalitarian state. Becomes routine. Arrested for listening to foreign radio
The effectiveness of propaganda:
§ Nazi propaganda – all pervasive in German society.
§ Most Germans believed in the Hitler myth and in Nazi economic success. Foreign policy successes were also
popular
§ Evidence from gestapo reports suggest that Nazi rule was generally popular – some scepticism
§ Propaganda was most successful in winning support from young people and when it built upon existing beliefs
and values- opinions not yet formed
§ Germanys middle class shared Nazi’s hostility to communism and socialism
§ Less successful with older Germans, challenged deeply held beliefs, especially religious beliefs
, Film- Goebbels keen fan of cinema - recognised the potential of film as a propaganda medium.
§ Film could work on the subconscious, delivering subliminal messages and reinforcing prejudices.
§ Goebbels - personally responsible for approving every film made in Germany after 1933. Foreign films were not
banned outright- carefully checked for political/ racial content.
§ Most American films were banned, although the popularity of Disney cartoons meant that many of these were still
approved. Cinema- cheap way to entertain – spirits high
§ Between 1933 and 1945, over 1000 feature films were produced in Germany and cinema attendances increased
four- fold in the years 1933 to 1944. Of these films, only 14 per cent had an overtly political theme. The most
common types of films were historical dramas, comedies, and musicals. Recognise the value
§ All films, to some degree, contained political messages. Leadership was glorified; ‘Blood and soil’ (the close
relationship of race and land) was a common theme, as was the demonising of Jews and communists. Films with a
pacifist message were banned outright.
§ 1000 films produced- 1/6 overly propagandist. 1936- 76% all films financed by Nazis
§ Infamous – ‘eternal Jew’- parasitic race within the nation
Moreand
§Parades effective in keeping support for the regime than in indoctrinating people with Nazism. Need for entertainment
Spectacles:
took priority
§ In 1930, a Nazi Party pamphlet, Modern Political Propaganda, stated that ‘good discipline is the best
propaganda’ - best displayed in marches and parades.
§ Attracted bystanders who may be watching. May 1933 mass book burning
§ Combination of uniforms, disciplined mass movements, music, swastika flags= feeling of wishing to belong.
§ Theatricality of marches- heightened by the wearing of uniforms and medals, the carrying of banners and the
choreographed singing of party songs. Carrying of lighted torches in night-time processions was particularly
effective in capturing people’s attention.
§ Householders - support for national parades - swastika flags. Compliance was monitored by Nazi Party ‘block
leaders’ - failure to conform - reported to authorities. To be labelled ‘politically unreliable’ - person being
dismissed - his or her job or more serious consequences.
§ Ritual parades and flag waving were visual ‘proof’ that German people were solidly behind the regime, even
though this support was being manipulated by Goebbels and his Propaganda Ministry. ‘All that goes on behind
the backcloth’ said Goebbels, ‘belongs to stage management.’
§ The annual Party rallies at Nuremberg in September were stage-managed to achieve maximum theatrical effect.
Vast numbers of Party members attended; the 1937 rally involved some 100,000 people.
§ Hitler- manipulates mass emotions. 1936 Olympics- prove German and Aaryan race are superior
