2. Education
Topic 4 – Gender differences in education
Gender gap in achievement
Main questions - Why do girls now generally achieve better results than
boys?
- Why do girls and boys opt to study different subjects?
- How does schooling help to reinforce gender
identities?
Official statistics - On starting school: girls were ahead of boys and were
also better at concentrating, boys more likely
statements of special educational needs
- At key stages: girls do consistently better than boys
- At GCSE: the gender gap stands at around 10
percentage points
- At AS/A-level: girls are more likely to sit these
qualifications and get higher grades, though the gap is
narrower than GCSE
- Vocational subjects: girls achieve more distinctions
even when being a minority in their course
External factors and gender
differences in achievement
External factor explanations - The impact of feminism
- Changes in the family
- Changes in women’s employment
- Girls' changing ambitions
The impact of feminism
Feminism This social movement has challenged the traditional
stereotypes of women's lives
Though they argue that we have not achieved full equality,
there has been considerable progress made
McRobbie (1994) Studied girls’ magazines
In the 1970s, these magazines emphasised the importance of
getting married and not being ‘left on the shelf’, whereas
nowadays they contain images of assertive, independent
women
Changes in the family
Changes Several changes since the 1970s include:
- An increase in the divorce rate
- An increase in cohabitation
- A decrease in the number of first marriages
- An increase in the number of lone-parent families
, - Smaller families
Impact These changes have each contributed to the change in
attitudes of girls towards education
Eg. The increase in lone-parent families are heavily matrifocal
and so rely on women to fulfil the breadwinner role. This
creates independent women which are a role model for girls
Also, the increase in divorce rate may suggest to girls that it is
unwise to rely on a husband to be their provider
Changes in women’s
employment
Changes These include:
- The 1970 Equal Pay Act makes it illegal to pay women
less for their equal value of work
- The 1975 Sex Discrimination Act outlawed
discrimination at work
- Since 1975, the pay gap between men and women
halved from 30% to 15%
- The proportion of women in employment rose from
53% in 1971 to 61% in 2013. The growth of the service
sector and flexible part-time work has offered
opportunities for women
- Some women are now breaking through the ‘glass
ceiling’ - an invisible barrier that keeps women from
out of high-level professional and managerial jobs
Impact These changes have encouraged girls to see their future in
terms of paid work instead of housewives
Greater career opportunities, better pay for women and
successful role models provide an incentive for girls to gain
qualifications
Girls’ changing ambitions
Changes in ambition The view that changes in family dynamics and employment
have led to a shift in girls’ ambitions
Sharpe (1994) Interviewed girls in 1970s and 1990s
Showed a major shift in the way girls see their future
1970s – girls had low aspirations: they believed that
educational success was unfeminine and appearing to be
ambitious would be considered unattractive. Their priorities
were ‘love, marriage, husbands, children, jobs and careers,
more or less in that order’
1990s – girls ambitious had changes and had a new order of
priorities: careers being able to support themselves,
independent from their husband and his income
O’Connor (2006) Studied 14–17-year-olds
, Found that marriage and children were not a major part of
their life plans
Beck and Beck-Gernsheim Link the changing ambitions of girls to the trend towards
(2001) individualisation in modern society
Independence is valued more highly than in the past
A career has become part of women’s life project because it
promises recognition and economic self-sufficiency
Fuller (2011) Educational success is a central aspect of some girls’ identity
In order to achieve independence and self-sufficiency, they
recognised that they needed a good education to create their
own future
They believed in meritocracy and so aimed for a professional
career which required academic qualifications not previously
needed
Class, gender and ambition
Class differences The shift in girls' ambitions varies upon their class
Working-class girls Continue to have gender-stereotyped aspirations of marriage,
children and low-paid jobs
Reay (1998) Argues this reflects the reality of girls’ class position
Their limited aspirations reflect the limited job opportunities
they perceive as being available to them
By contrast, low expectations of being housewife and mother is
easily available
Biggart (2002) Found that working-class girls are more likely to face a
precarious position in the labour market and to see
motherhood as the only viable option for their futures. Hence,
they see less point in educational achievement
Internal factor and gender
differences in achievement
Internal factor explanations - Equal opportunities policies
- Positive role models in schools
- GCSE and coursework
- Teacher attention and classroom interaction
- Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum
- Selection and league tables
Equal opportunities policies
Influence Feminist ideas that girls and boys should be entitled to equal
opportunities have influenced policymakers and educational
policies
Topic 4 – Gender differences in education
Gender gap in achievement
Main questions - Why do girls now generally achieve better results than
boys?
- Why do girls and boys opt to study different subjects?
- How does schooling help to reinforce gender
identities?
Official statistics - On starting school: girls were ahead of boys and were
also better at concentrating, boys more likely
statements of special educational needs
- At key stages: girls do consistently better than boys
- At GCSE: the gender gap stands at around 10
percentage points
- At AS/A-level: girls are more likely to sit these
qualifications and get higher grades, though the gap is
narrower than GCSE
- Vocational subjects: girls achieve more distinctions
even when being a minority in their course
External factors and gender
differences in achievement
External factor explanations - The impact of feminism
- Changes in the family
- Changes in women’s employment
- Girls' changing ambitions
The impact of feminism
Feminism This social movement has challenged the traditional
stereotypes of women's lives
Though they argue that we have not achieved full equality,
there has been considerable progress made
McRobbie (1994) Studied girls’ magazines
In the 1970s, these magazines emphasised the importance of
getting married and not being ‘left on the shelf’, whereas
nowadays they contain images of assertive, independent
women
Changes in the family
Changes Several changes since the 1970s include:
- An increase in the divorce rate
- An increase in cohabitation
- A decrease in the number of first marriages
- An increase in the number of lone-parent families
, - Smaller families
Impact These changes have each contributed to the change in
attitudes of girls towards education
Eg. The increase in lone-parent families are heavily matrifocal
and so rely on women to fulfil the breadwinner role. This
creates independent women which are a role model for girls
Also, the increase in divorce rate may suggest to girls that it is
unwise to rely on a husband to be their provider
Changes in women’s
employment
Changes These include:
- The 1970 Equal Pay Act makes it illegal to pay women
less for their equal value of work
- The 1975 Sex Discrimination Act outlawed
discrimination at work
- Since 1975, the pay gap between men and women
halved from 30% to 15%
- The proportion of women in employment rose from
53% in 1971 to 61% in 2013. The growth of the service
sector and flexible part-time work has offered
opportunities for women
- Some women are now breaking through the ‘glass
ceiling’ - an invisible barrier that keeps women from
out of high-level professional and managerial jobs
Impact These changes have encouraged girls to see their future in
terms of paid work instead of housewives
Greater career opportunities, better pay for women and
successful role models provide an incentive for girls to gain
qualifications
Girls’ changing ambitions
Changes in ambition The view that changes in family dynamics and employment
have led to a shift in girls’ ambitions
Sharpe (1994) Interviewed girls in 1970s and 1990s
Showed a major shift in the way girls see their future
1970s – girls had low aspirations: they believed that
educational success was unfeminine and appearing to be
ambitious would be considered unattractive. Their priorities
were ‘love, marriage, husbands, children, jobs and careers,
more or less in that order’
1990s – girls ambitious had changes and had a new order of
priorities: careers being able to support themselves,
independent from their husband and his income
O’Connor (2006) Studied 14–17-year-olds
, Found that marriage and children were not a major part of
their life plans
Beck and Beck-Gernsheim Link the changing ambitions of girls to the trend towards
(2001) individualisation in modern society
Independence is valued more highly than in the past
A career has become part of women’s life project because it
promises recognition and economic self-sufficiency
Fuller (2011) Educational success is a central aspect of some girls’ identity
In order to achieve independence and self-sufficiency, they
recognised that they needed a good education to create their
own future
They believed in meritocracy and so aimed for a professional
career which required academic qualifications not previously
needed
Class, gender and ambition
Class differences The shift in girls' ambitions varies upon their class
Working-class girls Continue to have gender-stereotyped aspirations of marriage,
children and low-paid jobs
Reay (1998) Argues this reflects the reality of girls’ class position
Their limited aspirations reflect the limited job opportunities
they perceive as being available to them
By contrast, low expectations of being housewife and mother is
easily available
Biggart (2002) Found that working-class girls are more likely to face a
precarious position in the labour market and to see
motherhood as the only viable option for their futures. Hence,
they see less point in educational achievement
Internal factor and gender
differences in achievement
Internal factor explanations - Equal opportunities policies
- Positive role models in schools
- GCSE and coursework
- Teacher attention and classroom interaction
- Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum
- Selection and league tables
Equal opportunities policies
Influence Feminist ideas that girls and boys should be entitled to equal
opportunities have influenced policymakers and educational
policies
