Philosophy of Science
Pierre Duhem: Undetermination and Good Sense
The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory (1904)
- Crucial experiments are impossible (on their own) because
hypotheses can only be tested in combination with
auxiliary assumptions (e.g., regarding experimental
apparatus).
- Scientists have to use their ‘good sense’.
Duhem-Quine proposed the problem of undetermination. It says
that scientific theory is embedded.
At the heart of the underdetermination of scientific theory by
evidence is the simple idea that the evidence available to us at
a given time may be insufficient to determine what beliefs we
should hold in response to it. In a textbook example, if all I
know is that you spent $10 on apples and oranges and that
apples cost $1 while oranges cost $2, then I know that you did
not buy six oranges, but I do not know whether you bought one
orange and eight apples, two oranges and six apples, and so
on.
The undetermination proposal led to insight by Thomas Kuhn.
Kuhn developed a model of scientific development:
1. Normal science (All scientists share a conceptual
framework; thus they all agree more or less on what the
important research questions are and how to understand
the basic concepts in their field.)
2. Crisis (Arises with a discussion of the paradigm agreed
upon in normal science, anomalies are found i.e.,
falsification. Scientists then try to solve the problems as
good as they can within the existing framework.)
3. Revolution (If anomalies become too many, a new
paradigm may be created as scientists doubt the
framework (crisis, above. A revolution then occurs and
presents a new framework to fit the anomalies
discovered).
Kuhn’s framework refers to long stretches in time.
What is a paradigm?
, In science and philosophy, a paradigm is a distinct set of
concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research
methods, postulates, and standards for what constitutes
legitimate contributions to a field. A paradigm holds the
community together – science is a social enterprise. The
elements of a paradigm include:
- Theoretical principles
- Tools and techniques
- Exemplars
Many paradigm shifts have occurred in the field of astronomy,
for example. One important change was from the geocentric
theory to the heliocentric theory. The geocentric model held
sway into the early modern age, but from the late 16th century
onward, it was gradually superseded by the heliocentric model
of Copernicus (1473-1543), Galileo (1564-1642), and Kepler
(1571-1630). There was much resistance to the transition
between these two theories.
There has also been a huge change in biology. For example,
Genesis believed that the human creature is unique and not a
primate. This changes with Darwin, who believed humans were
no more special than chimpanzees etc., it was dependent on
variation and natural selection.
Revolution: A Gestalt-Switch (cube)
What happens after a crisis is that when people move from one
paradigm to another, they suddenly see things in a different
light.
Incommensurability
One controversial aspect of Kuhn’s thesis was
incommensurability (lacking a basis of comparison in respect to
a quality normally subject to comparison).
. This is because there is no neutral observation language.
There is also no straightforward translation of the terms
between paradigm 1 (Popper) and paradigm 2 (Kuhn). The
concepts are so completely different. Underlying the above
argument is the idea that different paradigms categorise the
world differently.
Pierre Duhem: Undetermination and Good Sense
The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory (1904)
- Crucial experiments are impossible (on their own) because
hypotheses can only be tested in combination with
auxiliary assumptions (e.g., regarding experimental
apparatus).
- Scientists have to use their ‘good sense’.
Duhem-Quine proposed the problem of undetermination. It says
that scientific theory is embedded.
At the heart of the underdetermination of scientific theory by
evidence is the simple idea that the evidence available to us at
a given time may be insufficient to determine what beliefs we
should hold in response to it. In a textbook example, if all I
know is that you spent $10 on apples and oranges and that
apples cost $1 while oranges cost $2, then I know that you did
not buy six oranges, but I do not know whether you bought one
orange and eight apples, two oranges and six apples, and so
on.
The undetermination proposal led to insight by Thomas Kuhn.
Kuhn developed a model of scientific development:
1. Normal science (All scientists share a conceptual
framework; thus they all agree more or less on what the
important research questions are and how to understand
the basic concepts in their field.)
2. Crisis (Arises with a discussion of the paradigm agreed
upon in normal science, anomalies are found i.e.,
falsification. Scientists then try to solve the problems as
good as they can within the existing framework.)
3. Revolution (If anomalies become too many, a new
paradigm may be created as scientists doubt the
framework (crisis, above. A revolution then occurs and
presents a new framework to fit the anomalies
discovered).
Kuhn’s framework refers to long stretches in time.
What is a paradigm?
, In science and philosophy, a paradigm is a distinct set of
concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research
methods, postulates, and standards for what constitutes
legitimate contributions to a field. A paradigm holds the
community together – science is a social enterprise. The
elements of a paradigm include:
- Theoretical principles
- Tools and techniques
- Exemplars
Many paradigm shifts have occurred in the field of astronomy,
for example. One important change was from the geocentric
theory to the heliocentric theory. The geocentric model held
sway into the early modern age, but from the late 16th century
onward, it was gradually superseded by the heliocentric model
of Copernicus (1473-1543), Galileo (1564-1642), and Kepler
(1571-1630). There was much resistance to the transition
between these two theories.
There has also been a huge change in biology. For example,
Genesis believed that the human creature is unique and not a
primate. This changes with Darwin, who believed humans were
no more special than chimpanzees etc., it was dependent on
variation and natural selection.
Revolution: A Gestalt-Switch (cube)
What happens after a crisis is that when people move from one
paradigm to another, they suddenly see things in a different
light.
Incommensurability
One controversial aspect of Kuhn’s thesis was
incommensurability (lacking a basis of comparison in respect to
a quality normally subject to comparison).
. This is because there is no neutral observation language.
There is also no straightforward translation of the terms
between paradigm 1 (Popper) and paradigm 2 (Kuhn). The
concepts are so completely different. Underlying the above
argument is the idea that different paradigms categorise the
world differently.
