Chapter Introduction to Earth Science
1
The chapter Introduction to Earth Science opens by listing and describing what sciences comprise the
encompassing heading of Earth science. These include geology, oceanography, meteorology, astronomy, and
environmental science. It goes on to introduce the concept of scales of space and time. The nature of scientific
inquiry is discussed. The chapter explains the origins and creation of the Earth and solar system while noting
the differences in how the inner and outer planets formed. Earth’s four major spheres are addressed. These
spheres are the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. The chapter looks at Earth’s internal
structure from both a physical properties and a chemical composition point of view. This leads to the concept
of plate tectonics and a brief introduction to plate boundary types. A quick overview of the difference
between major continental features and major oceanic features follows. The chapter wraps up by discussing
how and why Earth is a system, citing examples of feedback loops and how people interact with the Earth
system.
FOCUS ON CONCEPTS
After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to:
1.1 List and describe the sciences that collectively make up Earth science. Discuss the scales of space and
time in Earth science.
1.2 Discuss the nature of scientific inquiry and distinguish between a hypothesis and a theory.
1.3 Outline the stages in the formation of our solar system.
1.4 List and describe Earth’s four major spheres.
1.5 Label a diagram that shows Earth’s internal structure. Briefly explain why the geosphere can be
described as being mobile.
1.6 List and describe the major features of the continents and ocean basins.
1.7 Define system and explain why Earth is considered to be a system.
STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING EARTH SCIENCE
Chapter 1 is meant to be an introductory chapter. Use this chapter to highlight topics in which you have
particular expertise or that you expect to cover in more detail throughout the course. Since it is meant to be an
overview of Earth science, avoid the pitfall of going into great detail about each topic at the beginning of your
course when students are reading this chapter. Give students the general idea of what they will encounter
during the course. It may be useful to point out which chapters explore particular topics in more detail for the
coming weeks.
• Pose the question, “What is Earth science?” Consider having students discuss this question with
others seated near them and asking for collective answers. This is also a good icebreaker for the start
of a course, so that students may meet others in the class.
• Have students brainstorm, either individually or in small groups, ways that Earth science affects
them. Have them think of how they impact the Earth.
• Use a visual aid to help students grasp the concept of geologic time. Construct a toilet paper geologic
time scale prior to class (see Additional Resources). This generates student interest and shows the
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
1
, vastness of geologic time in a concrete way. Alternatively, have students construct their own
calculator tape time scale (also in Additional Resources) for a more interactive experience.
• Make a list of statements where some are hypotheses and some are theories but don’t tell the students
which are which. Present these to the class and have students make their own decisions about which
statements are hypotheses and which are theories. Reveal the correct answers and discuss what makes
a statement a hypothesis or a theory. Students retain the information better if they’ve tried to figure it
out before you’ve actually presented it.
• When discussing the origins of the solar system, stress the differences between the inner and outer
planets; the inner planets are terrestrial whereas the outer planets are gaseous.
• Before introducing Earth’s spheres, have students come up with lists of features that are naturally a
part of Earth. They may be surprised at the things they did not think of (or did think of) as part of the
study of Earth science.
• Save the detailed discussion of Earth’s interior structure for later when it is covered in more detail in
the book. However, it may be useful to bring a hardboiled egg and slice it in half. Use the analogy
that the shell of the egg approximates the thickness of Earth’s crust, so that students see how thin a
layer it is.
• Introduce students to the idea that continental crust and oceanic crust are two different rock types.
Ask students to describe some of the more notable features of continents and ocean basins.
• Be sure to use visuals when describing introductory plate tectonics. At this stage illustrations and
diagrams from the text should suffice. Video clips and animations will be useful later.
• When introducing the concept that Earth is a system, have students come up with their own ideas of
what constitutes a system. Relate a few of those ideas back to the Earth system, stressing the
interconnectedness of everything.
Teaching Strategy Summary for Chapter 1
Keep it basic and introductory. Give students a glimpse at the course ahead of them. Get students involved
in thinking about concepts rather than just presenting the ideas as slides or notes. Students will feel
more ownership over the course material if you give them opportunities to think about a topic before you
lecture on it.
CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
Concept Check 1.1
1. List and briefly describe the sciences that collectively make up Earth science.
• Geology – this is the study of the solid Earth. Physical geology examines the materials that
comprise the Earth and historical geology aims to understand the origins and development of the
planet.
• Oceanography – examines the composition and dynamics of the world’s oceans. It also involves
the study of coastal processes and seafloor topography as well as marine life.
• Meteorology – this is the study of Earth’s atmosphere. It includes weather and climate.
• Astronomy – this examines Earth as a body in space, both as part of the solar system and as part
of a larger universe.
• Environmental science – includes the study of natural resources, environmental hazards, and how
people influence their environments and Earth processes.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
2
,2. Name the two broad subdivisions of geology and distinguish between them.
• Physical geology – this is the study of the materials and processes that define the planet Earth. It
includes the study of Earth’s composition, events such as volcanism, and the dynamics of Earth
processes such as plate tectonics.
• Historical geology – this is the study of the origins and evolution of Earth. It pieces together a
chronological history of Earth based on clues in the rock record. These clues can include evidence
of physical and biological changes throughout Earth’s 4.6 billion year history.
3. List at least four different natural hazards.
• Earthquakes
• Volcanoes
• Floods
• Tsunami
• Hurricanes
• Landslides
4. Aside from natural hazards, describe another important connection between people and Earth
science.
Humans influence Earth by altering its surface. People build cities and roads, and engineer projects that
alter river flooding patterns. People pollute the air, the land, and the water, changing Earth from what is
its natural state.
5. List two examples of size/place scales in Earth science that are at opposite ends of the spectrum.
• A lightning flash happens within a fraction of a second but can instantly alter the immediate
landscape.
• Uplift of mountain ranges takes tens to hundreds of millions of years to occur.
6. How old is Earth?
4.6 billion years old.
7. If you compress geologic time into a single year, how much time has elapsed since Columbus
arrived in the New World?
3 seconds.
Concept Check 1.2
1. How is a scientific hypothesis different from a scientific theory?
A hypothesis is an untested explanation for an observed phenomenon. It requires further observation or
testing to see if it is valid. A theory is generally accepted by the scientific community as the best
explanation for observable facts, as it has been subjected to rigorous scrutiny and tested repeatedly.
2. Summarize the basic steps followed in many scientific investigations.
• An observation is made about the natural world.
• Data surrounding that observation are collected.
• A working hypothesis is developed.
• More observations and/or experiments are performed to test the hypothesis.
• The hypothesis is accepted, rejected, or modified.
• Data and results are shared with the scientific community for critical analysis and further testing.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
3
, Concept Check 1.3
1. Name and briefly outline the theory that describes the formation of our solar system.
The nebular theory states that the early solar system originated as a cloud of dust and gas about 5 billion
years ago as a star gravitationally collapsed. This rotating nebular cloud eventually contracted into a
flattened, rotating disk. The cloud cooled and heavier metallic and rocky material condensed and accreted
into the inner planets. The outer planets formed from residual gases and ices in the outer nebular cloud.
2. List the inner planets and the outer planets. Describe basic differences in size and composition.
Inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. These planets are relatively small and rocky; they are
made up largely of metals and silicate minerals.
Outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. These planets are much larger than the inner planets
and are composed of ices and gases.
Concept Check 1.4
1. List Earth’s four spheres.
• Atmosphere
• Hydrosphere
• Biosphere
• Geosphere
2. Compare the height of the atmosphere to the thickness of the geosphere.
The atmosphere is a very thin layer compared to the planet itself. The radius of the solid Earth is about
6400 km (4000 mi) whereas the entire atmosphere is roughly 160 km (100 mi) thick.
3. How much of Earth’s surface do oceans cover? How much of the planet’s total water supply do
oceans represent?
Oceans cover 70% of the planet. They account for 97% of Earth’s water supply.
4. To which sphere does soil belong?
Geosphere
Concept Check 1.5
1. List and briefly describe Earth’s compositional layers.
• Crust – this is the outermost layer of Earth. It is very thin and made up of oceanic and continental
types of crust.
• Mantle – this is a semi-molten, relatively thick layer of Earth. It is divided into the upper and
lower mantle and its semi-fluid state allows for plate tectonics.
• Core – this is at the center of Earth. The inner core is solid nickel and iron, whereas the outer core
is liquid. It is the thickest of all Earth’s structural layers.
2. Contrast the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.
The lithosphere is the relatively cool, hard, outer shell of Earth’s crust. The asthenosphere is relatively
soft and has some melting in its upper layer. The different natures of these two layers, which are in
contact with each other, is what allows for plate tectonics, where the hard lithosphere moves on the semi-
fluid upper portion of the asthenosphere.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
4
1
The chapter Introduction to Earth Science opens by listing and describing what sciences comprise the
encompassing heading of Earth science. These include geology, oceanography, meteorology, astronomy, and
environmental science. It goes on to introduce the concept of scales of space and time. The nature of scientific
inquiry is discussed. The chapter explains the origins and creation of the Earth and solar system while noting
the differences in how the inner and outer planets formed. Earth’s four major spheres are addressed. These
spheres are the hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere. The chapter looks at Earth’s internal
structure from both a physical properties and a chemical composition point of view. This leads to the concept
of plate tectonics and a brief introduction to plate boundary types. A quick overview of the difference
between major continental features and major oceanic features follows. The chapter wraps up by discussing
how and why Earth is a system, citing examples of feedback loops and how people interact with the Earth
system.
FOCUS ON CONCEPTS
After reading, studying, and discussing the chapter, students should be able to:
1.1 List and describe the sciences that collectively make up Earth science. Discuss the scales of space and
time in Earth science.
1.2 Discuss the nature of scientific inquiry and distinguish between a hypothesis and a theory.
1.3 Outline the stages in the formation of our solar system.
1.4 List and describe Earth’s four major spheres.
1.5 Label a diagram that shows Earth’s internal structure. Briefly explain why the geosphere can be
described as being mobile.
1.6 List and describe the major features of the continents and ocean basins.
1.7 Define system and explain why Earth is considered to be a system.
STRATEGIES FOR TEACHING EARTH SCIENCE
Chapter 1 is meant to be an introductory chapter. Use this chapter to highlight topics in which you have
particular expertise or that you expect to cover in more detail throughout the course. Since it is meant to be an
overview of Earth science, avoid the pitfall of going into great detail about each topic at the beginning of your
course when students are reading this chapter. Give students the general idea of what they will encounter
during the course. It may be useful to point out which chapters explore particular topics in more detail for the
coming weeks.
• Pose the question, “What is Earth science?” Consider having students discuss this question with
others seated near them and asking for collective answers. This is also a good icebreaker for the start
of a course, so that students may meet others in the class.
• Have students brainstorm, either individually or in small groups, ways that Earth science affects
them. Have them think of how they impact the Earth.
• Use a visual aid to help students grasp the concept of geologic time. Construct a toilet paper geologic
time scale prior to class (see Additional Resources). This generates student interest and shows the
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
1
, vastness of geologic time in a concrete way. Alternatively, have students construct their own
calculator tape time scale (also in Additional Resources) for a more interactive experience.
• Make a list of statements where some are hypotheses and some are theories but don’t tell the students
which are which. Present these to the class and have students make their own decisions about which
statements are hypotheses and which are theories. Reveal the correct answers and discuss what makes
a statement a hypothesis or a theory. Students retain the information better if they’ve tried to figure it
out before you’ve actually presented it.
• When discussing the origins of the solar system, stress the differences between the inner and outer
planets; the inner planets are terrestrial whereas the outer planets are gaseous.
• Before introducing Earth’s spheres, have students come up with lists of features that are naturally a
part of Earth. They may be surprised at the things they did not think of (or did think of) as part of the
study of Earth science.
• Save the detailed discussion of Earth’s interior structure for later when it is covered in more detail in
the book. However, it may be useful to bring a hardboiled egg and slice it in half. Use the analogy
that the shell of the egg approximates the thickness of Earth’s crust, so that students see how thin a
layer it is.
• Introduce students to the idea that continental crust and oceanic crust are two different rock types.
Ask students to describe some of the more notable features of continents and ocean basins.
• Be sure to use visuals when describing introductory plate tectonics. At this stage illustrations and
diagrams from the text should suffice. Video clips and animations will be useful later.
• When introducing the concept that Earth is a system, have students come up with their own ideas of
what constitutes a system. Relate a few of those ideas back to the Earth system, stressing the
interconnectedness of everything.
Teaching Strategy Summary for Chapter 1
Keep it basic and introductory. Give students a glimpse at the course ahead of them. Get students involved
in thinking about concepts rather than just presenting the ideas as slides or notes. Students will feel
more ownership over the course material if you give them opportunities to think about a topic before you
lecture on it.
CONCEPT CHECK ANSWERS
Concept Check 1.1
1. List and briefly describe the sciences that collectively make up Earth science.
• Geology – this is the study of the solid Earth. Physical geology examines the materials that
comprise the Earth and historical geology aims to understand the origins and development of the
planet.
• Oceanography – examines the composition and dynamics of the world’s oceans. It also involves
the study of coastal processes and seafloor topography as well as marine life.
• Meteorology – this is the study of Earth’s atmosphere. It includes weather and climate.
• Astronomy – this examines Earth as a body in space, both as part of the solar system and as part
of a larger universe.
• Environmental science – includes the study of natural resources, environmental hazards, and how
people influence their environments and Earth processes.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
2
,2. Name the two broad subdivisions of geology and distinguish between them.
• Physical geology – this is the study of the materials and processes that define the planet Earth. It
includes the study of Earth’s composition, events such as volcanism, and the dynamics of Earth
processes such as plate tectonics.
• Historical geology – this is the study of the origins and evolution of Earth. It pieces together a
chronological history of Earth based on clues in the rock record. These clues can include evidence
of physical and biological changes throughout Earth’s 4.6 billion year history.
3. List at least four different natural hazards.
• Earthquakes
• Volcanoes
• Floods
• Tsunami
• Hurricanes
• Landslides
4. Aside from natural hazards, describe another important connection between people and Earth
science.
Humans influence Earth by altering its surface. People build cities and roads, and engineer projects that
alter river flooding patterns. People pollute the air, the land, and the water, changing Earth from what is
its natural state.
5. List two examples of size/place scales in Earth science that are at opposite ends of the spectrum.
• A lightning flash happens within a fraction of a second but can instantly alter the immediate
landscape.
• Uplift of mountain ranges takes tens to hundreds of millions of years to occur.
6. How old is Earth?
4.6 billion years old.
7. If you compress geologic time into a single year, how much time has elapsed since Columbus
arrived in the New World?
3 seconds.
Concept Check 1.2
1. How is a scientific hypothesis different from a scientific theory?
A hypothesis is an untested explanation for an observed phenomenon. It requires further observation or
testing to see if it is valid. A theory is generally accepted by the scientific community as the best
explanation for observable facts, as it has been subjected to rigorous scrutiny and tested repeatedly.
2. Summarize the basic steps followed in many scientific investigations.
• An observation is made about the natural world.
• Data surrounding that observation are collected.
• A working hypothesis is developed.
• More observations and/or experiments are performed to test the hypothesis.
• The hypothesis is accepted, rejected, or modified.
• Data and results are shared with the scientific community for critical analysis and further testing.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
3
, Concept Check 1.3
1. Name and briefly outline the theory that describes the formation of our solar system.
The nebular theory states that the early solar system originated as a cloud of dust and gas about 5 billion
years ago as a star gravitationally collapsed. This rotating nebular cloud eventually contracted into a
flattened, rotating disk. The cloud cooled and heavier metallic and rocky material condensed and accreted
into the inner planets. The outer planets formed from residual gases and ices in the outer nebular cloud.
2. List the inner planets and the outer planets. Describe basic differences in size and composition.
Inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. These planets are relatively small and rocky; they are
made up largely of metals and silicate minerals.
Outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. These planets are much larger than the inner planets
and are composed of ices and gases.
Concept Check 1.4
1. List Earth’s four spheres.
• Atmosphere
• Hydrosphere
• Biosphere
• Geosphere
2. Compare the height of the atmosphere to the thickness of the geosphere.
The atmosphere is a very thin layer compared to the planet itself. The radius of the solid Earth is about
6400 km (4000 mi) whereas the entire atmosphere is roughly 160 km (100 mi) thick.
3. How much of Earth’s surface do oceans cover? How much of the planet’s total water supply do
oceans represent?
Oceans cover 70% of the planet. They account for 97% of Earth’s water supply.
4. To which sphere does soil belong?
Geosphere
Concept Check 1.5
1. List and briefly describe Earth’s compositional layers.
• Crust – this is the outermost layer of Earth. It is very thin and made up of oceanic and continental
types of crust.
• Mantle – this is a semi-molten, relatively thick layer of Earth. It is divided into the upper and
lower mantle and its semi-fluid state allows for plate tectonics.
• Core – this is at the center of Earth. The inner core is solid nickel and iron, whereas the outer core
is liquid. It is the thickest of all Earth’s structural layers.
2. Contrast the lithosphere and the asthenosphere.
The lithosphere is the relatively cool, hard, outer shell of Earth’s crust. The asthenosphere is relatively
soft and has some melting in its upper layer. The different natures of these two layers, which are in
contact with each other, is what allows for plate tectonics, where the hard lithosphere moves on the semi-
fluid upper portion of the asthenosphere.
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
4
