BSC 2346 Module_05_Midterm_Exam_Review

BSC 2346 Module_05_Midterm_Exam_Review Mid-Term Exam Review: PowerPoint Lecture Topics/Objectives Module 01 Scientific Method Review • Define the scientific method. The way we seek new knowledge • Label the steps to the scientific method. Observation, measurement, experiment, formulation, testing & modification of hypothesis • Define the variables associated with the scientific method. Independent variable-one the scientist changes Dependent variable-The variable scientist is watching for change Controlled variable- The variable that is constant Module 01 Homeostasis Review • Define metabolism and its role within the body. Metabolism-Chemical reactions involved in the maintain the living state of organisms. Chemical reactions make things in the body work. 2 types: Anabolism-smaller, simpler molecules are combines into larger, complex molecules. Uses energy Catabolism- breaking down larger, complex substances into simple molecules. Releases energy • Explain the process of homeostasis. We have a set point (physiological valve around which normal values fluctuate) This creates a normal range (restricted values for healthy and stable living). When something goes out of range a negative feedback look takes place(Mechanism that prevents physiological response from going beyond normal range by reversing an action once normal range is exceeded) The sensors/receptors measure the physiological values. The effectors are responsible for reversing the situation to return to normal range. • Compare and contrast negative and positive feedback loops. Positive feedback loop: Moves a bodys state of stability away from normal range. (childbirth, blood loss) Negative feedback loop: Works on moving a body’s state of stability back to its normal range of values. (sweating) • Discuss the importance of maintaining homeostasis. Feedback loops are important because if we exceed or normal values range for to long it can cause detrimental effects on our bodies, even death. Its an important response as it keeps our body stable and functioning at its best. Module 01 Chemistry Review • Define the structure of an atom. Electrons surrounding a nucleus, which contains a proton and neutrons • Compare and contrast the different types of chemical bonding. Ionic bond: +/- charged ion, combine to balance outer electron shell, weak bond Covalent bond: share electrons to complete outer electron shell, strong bond (CO2) Hydrogen bond: positively charged H (hydrogen) ions, weakly attracted to negative charged ions • Define the pH scale and explain the importance of maintaining proper pH. PH is the measurement of H+ ion concentration, measures 0-14. 0-7 acidic 7-14 base 7 neutral Blood is slightly alkaline, measuring 7.35-7.45, in order to properly function needs to stay around 7.40 • Compare and contrast organic compounds. 4 organic molecules: Proteins: made up of amino acids and carry out many functions (ie: catalyzing reactions-enzymes) Lipids make up the cellular membrane (phospholipid bilayer) made up of fatty acids Carbohydrates are made up of simple sugars (glucose & maltose) Nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides and form nucleic material such as DNA Module 01 Cellular Structure and Function Review • Label and explain the components all cells share. Plasma Membrane-cell boundries, interaction with cells, allows for movement between cells Cytoplasm/Organelles-between plasma membrane and nucleus, Contains mitochondria, ribosomes, and ER Nucleus- • Explain the structure and function of the cell membrane. The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the cell from its surroundings. It consists of the phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the cell wall, glycocalyx, and intracellular cytoskeleton. • Compare and contrast the various cellular organelles. • mitochondria produces energy through cellular respiration • rough endoplasmic reticulum transport and storage • ribosomes create proteins • smooth endoplasmic reticulum creates lipids or fat • chloroplast creates glucose • golgi apparatus synthesis, packages and releases concentrate proteins or lipids • golgi body protein or lipid enters the cytoplasm • cytoplasm where all chemicals take place • glycoprotein short sugar chains attached to proteins • glyco lipids lipids attached to proteins • cisternae flattened stacked membrane folds • liposome small membrane bounded transport vesicles • peroxisome microbodies found in animal cells • centrioles for cellular division and cellular reproduction • cytoskeleton supports structure and helps move synthesized proteins • lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes for digestion • cilia hair like structures • flagellum tail • contractile vacuole pump water out of cell • red blood cells carries oxygen, glucose • vesicle moves protein, lipid and carbohydrate • nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus • vacuole contains food or water • cell membrane separates cell contents from the environment • microtubules provide internal support • nucleus information center of the cell • nucleolus site of ribosome synthesis • chromatin threadlike mass of DNA • skeletal tissues attached by tendons to bones • smooth tissues on the wall of the guts; the iris of the eye • cardiac tissues at the heart • Define the role of the nucleus within a cell. The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Inside its fully-enclosed nuclear membrane, it contains the majority of the cell's genetic material. This material is organized as DNA molecules, along with a variety of proteins, to form chromosomes. Module 01 Cellular Transport and Respiration Review • Compare and contrast the various methods of membrane transport. Passive transport- requires no energy (ATP- Adenosine triphosphate) Types: Simple diffusion: - lipid soluable (hydrophobic) substance that diffuse directly through phospholipid bilayers. - Process by which molecules/ions scatter or spread spontaneously from regions of HIGH concentration to LOW. Facilitated: - Like diffusion but needs a facilitated carrier (IE protein channel) Osmosis: - Movement of water molecules - Must be a permeable membrane - - Red blood cells – Osmosis - Isotonic-cells retain the size and shape = concentration of water in cell and the outside solution. - Hypertonic-Cells lose water , shrink I size and shape - Hypotonic-cells take on water due to water outside being greater than water in cell, cell will lysis and burst. Active Transport:-Uses ATP to move solutes and or substances across plasma membrane. - Endocytosis- movement of substances into cell - Phagocytosis- (cell eating) when cell engulfs a solid particle and brings it into the cell. (IE white blood cell “consuming” a bacteria) - Pinocytosis- (cell drinking) tiny vacuoles that bring droplets of extracellular fluid containing dissolved substances into cell. - Exocytosis-movement of substances to outside of the cell. Vessicles absorbs waste and fuses with membrane, then released. • Define cellular respiration. The chemical process that generates most of the energy in the cell, supplying the molecules needed to make the metabolic reactions of an organism run. • Compare and contrast aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Module 01 Tissue Review • List the four types of human tissues. Muscle, Epithelial, Nervous, COnnective • Compare and contrast the four types of human tissues. Muscle- made up of excitable cells that are long and fibrous. These cells are ready for contraction, or the activation of tension in our muscles, making it possible for us to move our body parts. Epithelial- Can be flat, cylindrical or cuboidal. They are joined tightly together, making a single or stacked continuous sheet. Like a quilt that is tightly stitched, epithelium makes an excellent protective cover for the body, in the form of skin. Epithelial tissue can also be found lining some internal cavities and organs. Connective- makes up a connective web inside our body. Holding our body parts together and providing support are the main jobs of this tissue. Connective tissue fills in the spaces inside our body with a matrix made of fibers within a liquid, solid, or jelly-like substance. Nervous- found within the nervous system and is made up of unique specialized cells. Like electrical circuits, the nervous system transmits signals from nerves to the spinal cord and brain. Cells known as neurons conduct these impulses, making it possible for us to use our senses. • Identify the characteristics of each tissue type. Module 01 Genetics Review • Describe the function and role of DNA. -composed of polynucleotides -- have a phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar and a nitrogen containing bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine) -Has a doubled helix that is formed by hydrogen bonds between polynucleotides -Densely compacted into chromosomes to fit into nucleus ­stores an organisms genetic material in the nuclei ­replicates itself when dividing ­provides code or template for the particular sequencing of amino acids that bond together and make a protein • Define the terms: Hereditary, genotype, phenotype, autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive. Hereditary- determined by genetic factors and therefore able to be passed on from parents to their offspring or descendants Genotype- The genotype refers to the entire set of genes in a cell, an organism, or an individual. A gene for a particular character or trait may exist in two allelic forms; one is dominant (e.g. A) and the other is recessive (e.g. a). Based on this, there could be three possible genotypes for a particular character: AA (homozygous dominant), Aa (heterozygous), and aa (homozygous recessive). Phenotype- The physical appearance of displayed alleles or genotpe. Autosomal dominate- pattern of dominant inheritance that corresponds to a gene on one of the 22 autosomal chromosomes Autosomal recessive- pattern of recessive inheritance that corresponds to a gene on one of the 22 autosomal chromosomes • Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis- a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cell division). During mitosis one cell? divides once to form two identical cells. The major purpose of mitosis is for growth and to replace worn out cells. Meisos- a process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the original amount of genetic information. These cells are our sex cells – sperm in males, eggs in females. • Describe the role and function of Punnett squares and human pedigrees. Punnett Square--a diagram that is used to predict an outcome of a particular cross or breeding experiment. The diagram is used by biologists to determine the probability of an offspring having a particular genotype. Human Pedigrees- used to help detect many different genetic diseases. A pedigree can also be used to help determine the chances for a parent to produce an offspring with a specific trait. Four different traits can be identified by pedigree chart analysis: autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, x-linked, or y-linked. Module 02 Integument Introduction • Label and explain the functions of the integumentary system. The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, glands, and nerves. Its main function is to act as a barrier to protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against disease, eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature. • Label the structures of the integumentary system. Epidermis and dermis Module 02 Integument Organs • Compare and contrast the characteristics of the epidermis and dermis. Epidermis-closely packed epithelial cells, avascular, 4-5 layersdeep to superficial) stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum, and corneum,; contains melanocytes which determine skin color, waterproofing, etc. Epidermous cells: Stem (basal) cells Keratinocytes-makes skin Melanocytes- pigment, protects vs UV lights Tactile (merkle)- receptors with nerve endings Dendritic (Langerhans)- macrophagers, guards against pathogens Dermis Papillary- extremely thin and superficial, dermal papillae, friction ridges, some collagen and elastic fibers Reticular- 80% of the dermis layer, hair, nervous and muscular tissue, lots of collagen fibers, runs parallel to the skin. Dermal Papillae holds dermis and epidermis together, finger prints, friction ridges • Explain how skin color can be influenced. Skin color is influenced by the amount of melanocytes produced, genetics and amount of UV rays that hit the skin. • Define the accessory organs of the skin and their characteristics. o The hair shaft is the portion of the hair that is visible on the surface of the skin. o The hair root is the portion of the hair that penetrates the skin (epidermis and dermis). o The hair follicle is the sheath that surrounds the hair in the skin. o The bulb is the base of the hair follicle. o The matrix is the bottom of the hair follicle (located within the bulb). Here, cells are actively dividing, producing new hair cells. As these cells differentiate, they produce keratin and absorb melanin from nearby melanocytes. As younger cells are produced below them, the more mature cells are pushed upward, where they eventually die. The keratin they leave behind contributes to the growth of the hair. The color of the hair is determined by the pigments absorbed from the melanocytes. o The arrector pili is a smooth muscle that is attached to the hair follicle. When the muscle contracts, the hair becomes erect; in humans, “goose bumps” are produced. • Nails are keratinized epithelial cells. The semilunar lighter region of the nail, the lunula, is the area of new nail growth. Below the lunula, the nail matrix is actively producing nail cells, which contribute to the growth of the nail. • Sudoriferous (sweat) glands secrete sweat. Sweat consists of water with various salts and other substances. There are four kinds of sudoriferous glands: o Merocrine glands occur under most skin surfaces and secrete a watery solution through pores (openings at the skin surface), which serve to cool the skin as it evaporates. o Apocrine glands occur under skin surfaces of the armpits and pubic regions and, beginning with puberty, secrete a solution in response to stress or sexual excitement. The solution, more viscous and more odorous than that secreted by eccrine glands, is secreted into hair follicles. o Ceruminous glands secrete cerumen (earwax) into the external ear canal. Wax helps to impede the entrance of foreign bodies. o Mammary glands produce milk that is secreted through the nipples of the breasts. • Sebaceous (oil) glands secrete sebum, an oily substance, into hair follicles or sometimes through skin surface pores. Sebum inhibits bacterial growth and helps prevent drying of hair and skin. An accumulation of sebum in the duct of a sebaceous gland produces whiteheads, blackheads (if the sebum oxidizes), and acne (if the sebum becomes infected by bacteria). -dense irregular connective tissue, houses blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, think collagen fibers (structural), elastic fibers (elasticity) and sensory organs, 2 layers: Module 02 Skin Color-Cancer-Burns • Compare and contrast the types of skin cancer. Basal Cell Carcinoma- most common, affects mitotically active stem cells easily treatable ie freeze, cut, topical ointments Squamous Cell Carcinoma- affects keratinocytes, 2nd most common can metastasize, requires surgery and radiation Melanoma-Melanocytes, moles, most fatal • Compare and contrast the types of skin burns. 1st degree- a superficial burn that affects only the epidermis. Although the skin may be painful and swollen, these burns typically heal on their own within a few days. Mild sunburn fits into the category of a first­degree burn. 2nd degree- goes deeper and affects both the epidermis and a portion of the dermis. These burns result in swelling and a painful blistering of the skin. It is important to keep the burn site clean and sterile to prevent infection. If this is done, the burn will heal within several weeks. 3rd degree- fully extends into the epidermis and dermis, destroying the tissue and affecting the nerve endings and sensory function. These are serious burns that may appear white, red, or black; they require medical attention and will heal slowly without it. 4th degree­ affecting the underlying muscle and bone. Oddly, third and fourth­degree burns are usually not as painful because the nerve endings themselves are damaged. Full­ thickness burns cannot be repaired by the body, because the local tissues used for repair are damaged and require excision (debridement), or amputation in severe cases, followed by grafting of the skin from an unaffected part of the body, or from skin grown in tissue culture for grafting purposes. • Explain the function and role of the Rule of 9’s. a method of estimating the extent of burns, expressed as a percentage of total body surface. In this method, the body is divided into sections of 9 %, or multiples of 9 %, each: head and neck, 9 %; anterior trunk, 18 %; posterior trunk, %; upper limbs, %; lower limbs, 36%; genitalia and perineum, 1 % Module 03 Bone Introduction • Define the functions of the skeletal system. Support, protection, movement, mineral storage (calcium & phosphate), hematopoiesis (formation of red, white blood cells, platelets), and triglyceride storage. • Identify the anatomy of a long bone specimen. • Module 03 Bone Tissue • Identify the anatomy of a bone tissue. Osteogenic- stem cells that give rise to other bone cells Osteocytes-(maintains bone tissue) former osteoblasts that become trapped in bone matrix, reside in lacunau and the canaliculi connect them. Osteoblasts- forms bone tissue, bone matrix; synthesizes soft organic matter of the bone matrix, is hardened by mineral depostis, stress and fractures stimulate production of these cells Ostesoclasts- resorbs bone, bone dissolving cells found on the bone surface, releases mineral (calcium) into the blood stream. • Compare and contrast the bone cells. • Identify the anatomy and explain the role of the components within extracellular space of bone tissue. Collagen fibers-main structural protein in extracellular matrix Bone mineral-bone apatite- the inorganic component of bone tissue. It gives bones their compressive strength. Bone mineral is formed from carbonated hydroxyapatite[1][2] with lower crystallinity. Bone mineral is formed from globular and plate structures[4][5] distributed among the collagen fibrils of bone and forming yet a larger structure. The bone salt and collagen fibers together constitute the extracellular matrix of bone tissue. • Compare and contrast the characteristics and anatomical structures of spongy and compact bone. Module 03 Bone Growth • Compare and contrast the two types of bone formation. • Identify and describe the importance of the epiphyseal plates. Module 03 Bone Homeostasis • Compare and contrast the factors that influence bone (matrix) homeostasis. • Compare and contrast the actions of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone. • Define the terms: osteopenia and osteoporosis. • List and define the steps involved in bone repair. Module 04 Muscle Introduction • Describe the functions of the muscular system. Movement, posture, joint stability, and heat production • Identify the special characteristics of muscle cells. • responsiveness/excitibility • highly developed in muscle cells, large reaction occurs to certain stimuli like chemical, electrical, stretch, where charge change occurs across cell • conductivity • stimulation to cell causes reaction which easily spreads "charge change" • contractility • entire muscle cell will contract in response to stimulation • extensibility • muscle cells capable of stretching to 3 times their contracted length • elasticity • when tension released by muscle cell it will return to its resting length, has ability to recoil • Compare and contrast the three types of muscular tissue. Skeletal Muscle - Skeletal muscle is voluntary. - These muscles are attached to bones and are responsible for their movement. - Skeletal muscle consists of long fibers and is striated due to the repeating patterns of the myofilaments (made of the protein actin and myosin) that make up the fibers. Cardiac Muscle - Cardiac muscle is found in the heart. - Cardiac muscle is striated like skeletal muscle, but differs in that the plasma membrane of the cardiac muscle causes the muscle to beat even when away from the heart. - The action potentials of cardiac and skeletal muscles also differ. Smooth Muscle - Smooth muscle is involuntary. - It is found in organs and enables functions such as digestion and respiration. - Unlike skeletal and cardiac muscle, smooth muscle is not striated. - Smooth muscle has less myosin and does not generate as much tension as skeletal muscle. • Identify the gross anatomy of a muscle. tendon, facia, epimysium, perimysium, fascicles, endomyosium, muscle cells (fibers) Module 04 Muscle Tissue • Identify and describe the anatomical parts to the microscopic observation of skeletal muscle tissue. • Compare and contrast the thick and thin filament anatomy. • Describe the anatomy and function of the neuromuscular junction. Module 04 Muscle Contraction • Describe the process of the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. • Identify the necessary substances needed for muscle contraction and their individual role within muscle contraction. Module 04 Muscular Fibers • Compare and contrast the two types of muscle fibers. • Define the importance of muscle metabolism with aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Module 05 Articulations • Identify the anatomical features of major categories of articulations. • Compare and contrast the three major categories of articulations. • Identify the anatomical structures of a synovial joint define their function. • Compare and contrast the classification of synovial joints and the range of motion terminology associated with synovial joints. Module 05 Common Synovial Articulations • Identify the anatomical structures of the common synovial joints • Compare and contrast the glenohumeral and acetobulofemoral joints. • Describe the characteristics of common homeostatic imbalances of synovial joints. • Explain the process of osteoarthritis, the causes and treatments of it. Module 05 Muscle Characteristics • Define the functions of agonist (prime movers), synergists, and antagonists. • Define the terms: Origin, insertion and belly in regards to muscles. • Describe how a muscle’s fascicle direction and position relative to a joint affects its action.