Pharmacology Study Guide Exam #1
Chapter 1: Drug Development and Ethical Considerations
Drug Names-
The Generic Name: is the official, nonproprietary name for the drug; this name is not owned by any drug
company and is universally accepted. Generic names are given in lowercase letters
The Brand (Trade) Name: also known as the proprietary name is chosen by the drug company and it usually a
registered trademark. Brand names always begin with a capital letter.
Over-the-Counter Drugs-
Over the Counter (OTC): drugs have been found to be safe and appropriate for use without the direct
supervision of a healthcare provider. They are available for purchase without a prescription in many retail
locations. OTC drugs include vitamin supplements, cold remedies, analgesics, antacids, laxatives, antihistamines,
sleep aids, nasal sprays, weight control drugs, drugs for dermatitis and fungal infections, fluoride toothpaste,
corn and callous removal products, and herbal products.
Chapter 2: Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Pharmacogenetics
Pharmacokinetics-
Pharmacokinetics: . Is the process of drug movement throughout the body that is necessary to achieve drug
action. The 4 processes are absorption, distribution, metabolism (or biotransformation), and excretion (or
elimination).
Drug Absorption: is the movement of the drug into the bloodstream after administration. Approximately 80% of
drugs are taken by the mouth (enteral). For the body to utilize drugs taken by mouth, drug and solid form must
disintegrate into small pieces and combined with liquid to form a solution, a process known as dissolution, in
order to be absorbed from the gastrointestinal track into the bloodstream.
o Unlike drugs taken by mouth parenteral drug such as eyedrops, eardrops, nasal sprays, respiratory
inhalants, transdermal drugs, and sublingual drugs do not pass through the G.I. tract.
o Blood flow, pain, stress, hunger, fasting, food, and pH affects drug absorption.
o Drugs given intramuscularly are observed faster and muscles that have increased blood flow (e.g.
deltoid) than those that do not (e.g. gluteus maximus).
o Subcutaneous tissue has decreased blood flow when compared to muscles, so absorption is slower when
drugs are given subcutaneously. However, drugs that are given subcutaneously have a more rapid and
predictable rate of absorption than those given by mouth.
o Drugs given rectally are absorbed slower than drugs administered by oral route. Absorption is slower
because the surface area in the rectum is smaller than the stomach, and there are no villi.
o Following absorption of oral drugs from the G.I. tract, they pass from the intestinal lumen to the liver via
the portal vein. In the liver some drugs are metabolized to a in active form and are excreted, thus
, reducing the amount of active drug available to exert a pharmacological effect. This is referred to as The
First Pass Effect. Affected to some degree by 1st pass metabolism.
o Bioavailability refers to the percentage of administered drug available for activity. The bioavailability of
intravenous drugs is 100%. The bioavailability of oral drugs is always less than 100% and varies based on
the rate of 1st pass metabolism.
Drug Distribution: distribution is the movement of the drug from the circulation of body tissues. Drug
distribution is influenced by the rate of blood flow to the tissue, the drugs affinity to the tissue, and protein
binding.
o Protein Binding- as drugs distribute in the plasma, many bind with plasma proteins. The portion of the
drug bone to protein is inactive because it is not available to interact with tissue receptors and therefore
is unable to exert a pharmacological effect. The portion that remains unbound is free, active drug. Free
drugs are able to exit blood vessels and reach their site of action, causing a pharmacological response.
When 2 highly protein bound drugs are administered together, they compete for protein binding
sites, leading to an increase in free drug being released into the circulation. In this situation it is
possible for drug accumulation to occur and for toxicity to result.
Another factor that may alter protein binding is low plasma protein levels, which potentially
decrease the number of available binding sites and can lead to an increase in the amount of free
drug available, resulting in drug accumulation and toxicity. Patients with liver kidney disease and
those who are malnourished may have significantly lower serum albumin levels. Additionally,
older adults are more likely to have low albumin levels, particularly if they have multiple chronic
illnesses.
Drug Metabolism: metabolism or biotransformation, is the process by which the body chemically changes drugs
into a form that can be excreted. The liver is the primary site of metabolism.
o Liver disease such as cirrhosis and hepatitis alter drug metabolism by inhibiting the drug metabolizing
enzymes in the liver. When the drug metabolism rate is decreased, excess drug accumulation can occur
and can lead to toxicity.
o The drug half-life is the time it takes for the amount of drug in the body to be reduced by half. The
amount of drug administered, the amount of the drug remaining in the body from previous doses,
metabolism, and elimination affect the half-life of a drug.
o By knowing the half-life, the time it takes for the drug to reach a steady state (plateau drug level) can be
determined. A steady-state occurs when the amount of drug being administered is the same as the
amount of drug being eliminated; a steady state of drug concentration is necessary to achieve optimal
therapeutic benefit. This takes about 4 half-life’s, if the size of all doses are the same.
o Loading Dose- in the case of drugs with long half-life’s, it may not be acceptable to wait for steady-state
to be achieved. For example a person with seizures receiving phenytoin. The half-life of phenytoin is
approximately 22 hours; if all doses of the drug were the same, steady-state would not be achieved for
about 3 ½ days. By giving a large initial dose, known as a loading dose, that is significantly higher than
maintenance dosing, therapeutic effects can be obtained while a steady state is reached.
Drug Excretion: the main route of drug excretion, elimination of drugs from the body, is through the kidneys.
Drugs are also excreted through bile, the lungs, saliva, sweat, and breast milk. The kidneys filter free drugs (in
healthy kidneys, drugs bound to protein are not filtered), water-soluble drugs, and drugs that are unchanged.
Pharmacodynamics-
Pharmacodynamics: is the study of the effects of drugs on the body. Drugs act within the body to mimic the
action of the body’s own chemical messengers. Drug response can cause a primary or secondary physiological
effect or both. A drugs primary effect is the desirable response, and the secondary effect may be desirable or
undesirable.
Onset: is the time it takes for a drug to reach the maximum effective concentration after administration.
Peak: a drugs peak occurs when it reaches its highest concentration in the blood.
Duration of Action: is the length of time the drug exerts a therapeutic effect
Peak Drug Level: is the highest plasma concentration of drug at a specific time, and it indicates the rate of drug
absorption. If the peak is too low, effective concentration has not been reached. If the drug is given orally, the
peak is usually 2 to 3 hours after drug administration. If the drug is given intravenously, the peak time is usually
, 30 to 60 minutes after the infusion is complete. If the drug is given intramuscularly the peak time is usually 2 to 4
hours after injection.
Through Drug Level: is the lowest plasma concentration of a drug, and it measure the rate at which the drug is
eliminated. Troughs levels are drawn just prior to the next dose of drug regardless of route of administration.
Most drugs only require trough concentration levels to be drawn
Agonist: drugs that activate receptors and produce a desired response
Antagonists: drugs that prevent receptor activation and block a response. Blocking receptor activation either
increases or decreases cellular action, depending on the androgynous action of the chemical messenger that is
blocked.
Side Effect: our secondary effects of drug therapy. All drugs have side effects. Even with correct drug dosage, side
effects occur that can be predictable and range from inconvenient to severe or life-threatening. In some
instances, the side effects may be desirable (e.g. using diphenhydramine at bedtime, when it side effect of
drowsiness is beneficial). Chronic illness, age, weight, gender, and ethnicity all play a part in drug side effects.
Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs): are unintentional, unexpected reactions to drug therapy that occur at normal
drug dosages. The reactions may be mild to severe and include anaphylaxis. Adverse drug reactions are always
undesirable and must be reported and documented because they represent variances from plant therapy.
Drug Toxicity: occurs when drug levels exceed the therapeutic range; toxicity may occur secondary to overdose
of drug accumulation. Factors that influence drug toxicity include disease, genetics, and age.
Pharmacogenetics-
Pharmacogenetics: refers to the study of genetic factors that influence an individual’s response to a specific
drug. Genetic factors can alter drug metabolism, resulting in either enhanced or diminished drug response.
Tolerance: refers to a decreased responsiveness to a drug over the course of therapy; an individual’s drug
tolerance requires a higher dosage of drug to achieve the same therapeutic response.
Chapter 4: Complementary and Alternative Therapies
Herbal Medicine:
Chapter 8: The Nursing Process and Patient-Centered Care
The Nursing Process-
Assessment: gathering information from the patient about the patient’s health and lifestyle. Always perform a
complete, systematic assessment of the patient’s body systems. In this assessment, the nurse asked the patient
questions about illness and about the drug regimen.
o Subjective Data-
current health history
swallowing problems (dysphasia)
current concerns
allergies
o Objective Data-
physical health assessment
laboratory and diagnostic test results
measurement of vital signs
patient’s body language
Diagnosis: is made based on analysis of the assessment data, and is determines the type of care the patient will
receive. When data show a abnormality during the assessment, it can serve as the defining characteristic of a
problem to support the appropriate nursing diagnosis. Common nursing diagnosis is related to drug therapy
include:
o pain, acute or chronic, related to surgery
o confusion, acute related to an adverse reaction to a medication
o health maintenance, ineffective related to not receiving recommended preventative care
o knowledge, deficit related to effects of anticoagulant education
o noncompliance related to forgetfulness
o health management, ineffective related to lack of finances
Chapter 1: Drug Development and Ethical Considerations
Drug Names-
The Generic Name: is the official, nonproprietary name for the drug; this name is not owned by any drug
company and is universally accepted. Generic names are given in lowercase letters
The Brand (Trade) Name: also known as the proprietary name is chosen by the drug company and it usually a
registered trademark. Brand names always begin with a capital letter.
Over-the-Counter Drugs-
Over the Counter (OTC): drugs have been found to be safe and appropriate for use without the direct
supervision of a healthcare provider. They are available for purchase without a prescription in many retail
locations. OTC drugs include vitamin supplements, cold remedies, analgesics, antacids, laxatives, antihistamines,
sleep aids, nasal sprays, weight control drugs, drugs for dermatitis and fungal infections, fluoride toothpaste,
corn and callous removal products, and herbal products.
Chapter 2: Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Pharmacogenetics
Pharmacokinetics-
Pharmacokinetics: . Is the process of drug movement throughout the body that is necessary to achieve drug
action. The 4 processes are absorption, distribution, metabolism (or biotransformation), and excretion (or
elimination).
Drug Absorption: is the movement of the drug into the bloodstream after administration. Approximately 80% of
drugs are taken by the mouth (enteral). For the body to utilize drugs taken by mouth, drug and solid form must
disintegrate into small pieces and combined with liquid to form a solution, a process known as dissolution, in
order to be absorbed from the gastrointestinal track into the bloodstream.
o Unlike drugs taken by mouth parenteral drug such as eyedrops, eardrops, nasal sprays, respiratory
inhalants, transdermal drugs, and sublingual drugs do not pass through the G.I. tract.
o Blood flow, pain, stress, hunger, fasting, food, and pH affects drug absorption.
o Drugs given intramuscularly are observed faster and muscles that have increased blood flow (e.g.
deltoid) than those that do not (e.g. gluteus maximus).
o Subcutaneous tissue has decreased blood flow when compared to muscles, so absorption is slower when
drugs are given subcutaneously. However, drugs that are given subcutaneously have a more rapid and
predictable rate of absorption than those given by mouth.
o Drugs given rectally are absorbed slower than drugs administered by oral route. Absorption is slower
because the surface area in the rectum is smaller than the stomach, and there are no villi.
o Following absorption of oral drugs from the G.I. tract, they pass from the intestinal lumen to the liver via
the portal vein. In the liver some drugs are metabolized to a in active form and are excreted, thus
, reducing the amount of active drug available to exert a pharmacological effect. This is referred to as The
First Pass Effect. Affected to some degree by 1st pass metabolism.
o Bioavailability refers to the percentage of administered drug available for activity. The bioavailability of
intravenous drugs is 100%. The bioavailability of oral drugs is always less than 100% and varies based on
the rate of 1st pass metabolism.
Drug Distribution: distribution is the movement of the drug from the circulation of body tissues. Drug
distribution is influenced by the rate of blood flow to the tissue, the drugs affinity to the tissue, and protein
binding.
o Protein Binding- as drugs distribute in the plasma, many bind with plasma proteins. The portion of the
drug bone to protein is inactive because it is not available to interact with tissue receptors and therefore
is unable to exert a pharmacological effect. The portion that remains unbound is free, active drug. Free
drugs are able to exit blood vessels and reach their site of action, causing a pharmacological response.
When 2 highly protein bound drugs are administered together, they compete for protein binding
sites, leading to an increase in free drug being released into the circulation. In this situation it is
possible for drug accumulation to occur and for toxicity to result.
Another factor that may alter protein binding is low plasma protein levels, which potentially
decrease the number of available binding sites and can lead to an increase in the amount of free
drug available, resulting in drug accumulation and toxicity. Patients with liver kidney disease and
those who are malnourished may have significantly lower serum albumin levels. Additionally,
older adults are more likely to have low albumin levels, particularly if they have multiple chronic
illnesses.
Drug Metabolism: metabolism or biotransformation, is the process by which the body chemically changes drugs
into a form that can be excreted. The liver is the primary site of metabolism.
o Liver disease such as cirrhosis and hepatitis alter drug metabolism by inhibiting the drug metabolizing
enzymes in the liver. When the drug metabolism rate is decreased, excess drug accumulation can occur
and can lead to toxicity.
o The drug half-life is the time it takes for the amount of drug in the body to be reduced by half. The
amount of drug administered, the amount of the drug remaining in the body from previous doses,
metabolism, and elimination affect the half-life of a drug.
o By knowing the half-life, the time it takes for the drug to reach a steady state (plateau drug level) can be
determined. A steady-state occurs when the amount of drug being administered is the same as the
amount of drug being eliminated; a steady state of drug concentration is necessary to achieve optimal
therapeutic benefit. This takes about 4 half-life’s, if the size of all doses are the same.
o Loading Dose- in the case of drugs with long half-life’s, it may not be acceptable to wait for steady-state
to be achieved. For example a person with seizures receiving phenytoin. The half-life of phenytoin is
approximately 22 hours; if all doses of the drug were the same, steady-state would not be achieved for
about 3 ½ days. By giving a large initial dose, known as a loading dose, that is significantly higher than
maintenance dosing, therapeutic effects can be obtained while a steady state is reached.
Drug Excretion: the main route of drug excretion, elimination of drugs from the body, is through the kidneys.
Drugs are also excreted through bile, the lungs, saliva, sweat, and breast milk. The kidneys filter free drugs (in
healthy kidneys, drugs bound to protein are not filtered), water-soluble drugs, and drugs that are unchanged.
Pharmacodynamics-
Pharmacodynamics: is the study of the effects of drugs on the body. Drugs act within the body to mimic the
action of the body’s own chemical messengers. Drug response can cause a primary or secondary physiological
effect or both. A drugs primary effect is the desirable response, and the secondary effect may be desirable or
undesirable.
Onset: is the time it takes for a drug to reach the maximum effective concentration after administration.
Peak: a drugs peak occurs when it reaches its highest concentration in the blood.
Duration of Action: is the length of time the drug exerts a therapeutic effect
Peak Drug Level: is the highest plasma concentration of drug at a specific time, and it indicates the rate of drug
absorption. If the peak is too low, effective concentration has not been reached. If the drug is given orally, the
peak is usually 2 to 3 hours after drug administration. If the drug is given intravenously, the peak time is usually
, 30 to 60 minutes after the infusion is complete. If the drug is given intramuscularly the peak time is usually 2 to 4
hours after injection.
Through Drug Level: is the lowest plasma concentration of a drug, and it measure the rate at which the drug is
eliminated. Troughs levels are drawn just prior to the next dose of drug regardless of route of administration.
Most drugs only require trough concentration levels to be drawn
Agonist: drugs that activate receptors and produce a desired response
Antagonists: drugs that prevent receptor activation and block a response. Blocking receptor activation either
increases or decreases cellular action, depending on the androgynous action of the chemical messenger that is
blocked.
Side Effect: our secondary effects of drug therapy. All drugs have side effects. Even with correct drug dosage, side
effects occur that can be predictable and range from inconvenient to severe or life-threatening. In some
instances, the side effects may be desirable (e.g. using diphenhydramine at bedtime, when it side effect of
drowsiness is beneficial). Chronic illness, age, weight, gender, and ethnicity all play a part in drug side effects.
Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs): are unintentional, unexpected reactions to drug therapy that occur at normal
drug dosages. The reactions may be mild to severe and include anaphylaxis. Adverse drug reactions are always
undesirable and must be reported and documented because they represent variances from plant therapy.
Drug Toxicity: occurs when drug levels exceed the therapeutic range; toxicity may occur secondary to overdose
of drug accumulation. Factors that influence drug toxicity include disease, genetics, and age.
Pharmacogenetics-
Pharmacogenetics: refers to the study of genetic factors that influence an individual’s response to a specific
drug. Genetic factors can alter drug metabolism, resulting in either enhanced or diminished drug response.
Tolerance: refers to a decreased responsiveness to a drug over the course of therapy; an individual’s drug
tolerance requires a higher dosage of drug to achieve the same therapeutic response.
Chapter 4: Complementary and Alternative Therapies
Herbal Medicine:
Chapter 8: The Nursing Process and Patient-Centered Care
The Nursing Process-
Assessment: gathering information from the patient about the patient’s health and lifestyle. Always perform a
complete, systematic assessment of the patient’s body systems. In this assessment, the nurse asked the patient
questions about illness and about the drug regimen.
o Subjective Data-
current health history
swallowing problems (dysphasia)
current concerns
allergies
o Objective Data-
physical health assessment
laboratory and diagnostic test results
measurement of vital signs
patient’s body language
Diagnosis: is made based on analysis of the assessment data, and is determines the type of care the patient will
receive. When data show a abnormality during the assessment, it can serve as the defining characteristic of a
problem to support the appropriate nursing diagnosis. Common nursing diagnosis is related to drug therapy
include:
o pain, acute or chronic, related to surgery
o confusion, acute related to an adverse reaction to a medication
o health maintenance, ineffective related to not receiving recommended preventative care
o knowledge, deficit related to effects of anticoagulant education
o noncompliance related to forgetfulness
o health management, ineffective related to lack of finances
