Problem 1
Birds and the Bees
Genetic material
DNA:
molecules that make up chromosomes, it duplicates so
allows zygote to develop.
long, double stranded molecules that make up
chromosomes.
Shaped like a double helix, contains genetic information.
It replicates itself, and it’s important for psycho-
development.
Nucleotides: Adenine and Thymine Guanine and Cytosine Mitosis:
DNA replication: cell duplicates chromosomes and divides into two
Transcription: Two strands disconnect (the “rungs” of the genetically identical daughter cells (same genetic material
ladder split open) as original cell) --> in body cells
Exposed bases attract their opposite pairs that are Generate new cells for growth and replace damaged ones
aroundThe new strands are mRNA (messenger RNA) Meiosis:
In RNA, the thymine is exchanged for Uracil. cell divides and results in four daughter cells, produces
Translation: mRNA is read and decoded to amino acids, gametes sperm or ova (half of original genetic material)
producing proteins in germ/sex cells
Autosomes: Crossing-over:
22 of the 23 pairs of chromosomes identical in males and genetic material is exchanged between pairs of
females chromosomes
Sex chromosomes: Independent assortment:
23rd pair that determines sex, XX female & XY male random combinations of chromosomes, gives unique
Conception: hereditary
when sperm fertilizes ovum, forming a zygote that has
genetic material of both parents
Monozygotic twins (identical):
share genotype, zygote split into separate identical cells
Dizygotic twins (fraternal):
two ova are fertilized by different sperm
Gene Expressions
Genes produce amino acids, which form enzymes and other
proteins used for formation and functioning of new cells
Ex genes regulate pigment melanin in eye that result in
eye color Punnet square grid
Guide cell differentiation e.g. some for brain others for steps:
skin 1. Choose letter to show alleles.
Biochemical environment influence genes and vice versa 2. Determine parents’ genotype.
(during development) homozygous dominant {AA)
Some regulate pace and timing of development heterozygous {Aa)
Genotype: genes inherited homozygous recessive {aa)
Phenotype: observable characteristics of a gene 3. Determine gametes that parents could
Environmental and genetic influences determine how produce.
genotype is expressed into phenotype 4. Draw a punnet grid.
Alleles: pair of genes that influence traits, one from mother 5. Work out chances of each genotype
and other from father and phenotype occurring.
dominant vs recessive
Homozygous same two alleles for attribute (NN or nn)
- Homozygous recessive
- Homozygous dominant
Heterozygous two different alleles (Nn)
Genetic imprinting: expression of gene has different effects
depending on whether mother or father passed gene,
chemical process that silences one member of the gene pair
, Gene Inheritance Chromosomal and Genetical abnormalities
Simple dominant-recessive inheritance: phenotype of dominant Chromosomal abnormalities
allele is expressed rather than recessive, unless both 1. Sex-linked abnormalities
genes are recessive Turner’s syndrome (XO)
Mendel: cross-breeding strains of peas -Infertile,lack of puberty, webbed neck, stumpy fingers, low
Carrier: heterozygous individual passes recessive trait to spatial ability
offspring, but does not express it Superfemale/poly- X syndrome (XXX+)
Heterozygote child (Aa) through simple dominant-recessive -typical fertile female, low intelligence, the more X’s = more
inheritance pattern --> parents could be: AA & aa, intellectual impairment
Aa & Aa, Aa & aa, Aa & AA Klinefelter syndrome (XXY):
Codominance: two alleles produce phenotype expressing both -males have an extra X chromosome.
genes ex blood type AB -male with female 2nd sex characteristics, sterile, low verbal
Incomplete dominance : heterozygous allele is stronger intelligence
than other but fails to mask its effects ex sickle cells Supermale syndrome (XYY+): male has an extra Y
Flower of homozygotic red and homozygotic white flower chromosome.
(both alleles dominant) create flower with white and red -tall male, big teeth, fertile, no intellectual impairments
spots because there is codominance Fragile X syndrome
Sex-linked inheritance: traits determined by genes on sex -abnormality in X chromosome, more prevalent in men, mental
chromosomes retardation, seizures learning & attention deficits.
X-linked trait: recessive gene on X chromosome, more likely Autosome abnormalities
in males because only have one & females need on both X (spontaneous mutation= somatic))
in oder to show ex color blindness Down syndrome (extra copy of 21st chromosome = trisomy of
Polygenic inheritance: many genes determine trait ex height, 21st chromosome)
skin color, intelligence -intellectual impairment (ranges in severity), slow development,
congenital effects, stimulation influences development, distinct
physical features, flat head, protruding tongue, almond eyes.
Gene linked abnormalities
PKU
-inability to breakdown phenylalanine, accumulation of toxins
which causes mental retardation, may be prevented by diet
alterations
Sickle cell anemia
-alteration of red bloodcell shape, lack of oxygen to body parts,
unable to acquire malaria (benefit)
Diabetes
Prenatal Development -absence of insulin
Phases: Hemophilia
1. Germinal (Zygote): conception to implantation, 10-14 days -defect in blood clotting
Fertilized ovum (zygote) divides by mitosis, cells form Duchenne
structure blastocyst: inner layer=embryo & outer -attack on own muscles - motor capacity
layer=develop tissues to protect and nourish it Cystic fibrosis
Cell differentiation begins, zygote is not susceptible to -unable to clear mucus from body
teratogens yet Huntington’s disease
Implantation (7 to 10 days after ovulation, takes 48 hours): -dominant allele, expressed in adulthood, uncontrolled
blastocyst approaches uterus, reaches uterine wall and movements, emotional problems, and loss of thinking ability
uses mom’s blood supply (cognition)
Development of protective systems : implanted blastocyst’s Mutations
outer layer forms membranes -may lead to altered chemical structures of genes
- Amnion: fills with fluid from pregnant woman’s tissues -genetic abnormalities
(amniotic fluid), cushions organism against blows, regulates -changes in chemical structure of genes that produce new
temperature and provide weightless environment for embryo phenotype ex sickle cell gene
to move easier
- Chorion: surrounds amnion and becomes the placenta (semi-
permeable, provides respiration, nourishment
and elimination of metabolic wastes)
- Yolk sac: attached to chorion, produces blood cells until
embryo is capable
-Umbilical cord: contains blood vessels connecting embryo to
placenta
, 2. Embryonic period: (3rd to 8th week) 3. Fetal period: (9th week to birth)
Cell layers (embryonic disk) Period of rapid growth
- Ectoderm: (outer layer) becomes the nervous system, skin and major organs begin to function
hair individuality develops
- Neural tube: portion of ectoderm, becomes brain and spinal sexual differentiation progresses rapidly
cord covered in vernix (protects skin) and lanugo (body hair and
- Mesoderm: (middle layer) muscles, bones and circulatory helps vernix stick to skin)
system week 25-38= age of viablitiy:
- Endoderm: (inner layer) digestive system, lungs, urinary tract Reasonable ability to live and survival outside the uterus is
and vital organs like pancreas and liver possible.
End of 4th week heart is formed and starts to beat, facial Teratogens
fetures appear external agents that can harm developing embryo/fetus by
During 7 and 8th weeks, sexual development begins with causing deformaties
indifferent gonad How do they work:
Most vulnerable and susceptible to teratogens Sensitive period principle:
(mainly in embryonic phase)
- effects of teratogen are worst when fetus is forming and growing
rapidly.
- sensitive period: organism is most susceptible to environmental
influences
Individual difference principle:
- genetic susceptibility
- babies vary in the extent to which they
are affected by teratogens
(variation based on mothers
genes/babies genes/ prenatal
environment)
Dosage principle:
- longer exposure or higher dose leads
to harm
sleeper-effect principle:
- some teratogens are not apparent until
later
-Same defect can be caused by different
teratogens & variety of defects caused
by single teratogen
-Mother or father exposure to teratogen
can affect embryo/fetus
Drugs Nicotine (active or passive)
Thalidomide/softenon - Cleft lip/palette
Sedative/treats morning sickness - Impaired lung function
was tested, but turned out to cause deformation of the limbs in - Miscariage
babies - Low placenta functioning - oxygen/nutrients --> low weight &
DES academic skill
Drug to prevent miscarriage - ADHD
caused cervical cancer, reproductive organ abnormalities and - Increases effects of other teratogens by increasing transport
miscarriages in offspring across placenta
Alcohol Cocaine
- Fetal alcohol syndrome - Brain hemorrhages
more structural defects, small head, shorter in length, mental - Neuron damage
retardation due to lack of oxygen (impaired placenta & - Irritable behavior, higher blood pressure
intervenes with production and migration of neurons), - Lower IQ, premature birth
irritability, hyperactivity, low weight, trembling - Depression
- Fetal alcohol effects (less severe only after mild alcohol - Deadly withdrawal effect because of addiction
consumption) Heroin
impaired physical growth, motorskills, attention, intellect - Irritability, tremors, sleep disturbance. Child could grow up
Higher chance of miscarriage normally but secondary
Premature birth effects of environment (addicted mother) might cause
developmental issues.
Birds and the Bees
Genetic material
DNA:
molecules that make up chromosomes, it duplicates so
allows zygote to develop.
long, double stranded molecules that make up
chromosomes.
Shaped like a double helix, contains genetic information.
It replicates itself, and it’s important for psycho-
development.
Nucleotides: Adenine and Thymine Guanine and Cytosine Mitosis:
DNA replication: cell duplicates chromosomes and divides into two
Transcription: Two strands disconnect (the “rungs” of the genetically identical daughter cells (same genetic material
ladder split open) as original cell) --> in body cells
Exposed bases attract their opposite pairs that are Generate new cells for growth and replace damaged ones
aroundThe new strands are mRNA (messenger RNA) Meiosis:
In RNA, the thymine is exchanged for Uracil. cell divides and results in four daughter cells, produces
Translation: mRNA is read and decoded to amino acids, gametes sperm or ova (half of original genetic material)
producing proteins in germ/sex cells
Autosomes: Crossing-over:
22 of the 23 pairs of chromosomes identical in males and genetic material is exchanged between pairs of
females chromosomes
Sex chromosomes: Independent assortment:
23rd pair that determines sex, XX female & XY male random combinations of chromosomes, gives unique
Conception: hereditary
when sperm fertilizes ovum, forming a zygote that has
genetic material of both parents
Monozygotic twins (identical):
share genotype, zygote split into separate identical cells
Dizygotic twins (fraternal):
two ova are fertilized by different sperm
Gene Expressions
Genes produce amino acids, which form enzymes and other
proteins used for formation and functioning of new cells
Ex genes regulate pigment melanin in eye that result in
eye color Punnet square grid
Guide cell differentiation e.g. some for brain others for steps:
skin 1. Choose letter to show alleles.
Biochemical environment influence genes and vice versa 2. Determine parents’ genotype.
(during development) homozygous dominant {AA)
Some regulate pace and timing of development heterozygous {Aa)
Genotype: genes inherited homozygous recessive {aa)
Phenotype: observable characteristics of a gene 3. Determine gametes that parents could
Environmental and genetic influences determine how produce.
genotype is expressed into phenotype 4. Draw a punnet grid.
Alleles: pair of genes that influence traits, one from mother 5. Work out chances of each genotype
and other from father and phenotype occurring.
dominant vs recessive
Homozygous same two alleles for attribute (NN or nn)
- Homozygous recessive
- Homozygous dominant
Heterozygous two different alleles (Nn)
Genetic imprinting: expression of gene has different effects
depending on whether mother or father passed gene,
chemical process that silences one member of the gene pair
, Gene Inheritance Chromosomal and Genetical abnormalities
Simple dominant-recessive inheritance: phenotype of dominant Chromosomal abnormalities
allele is expressed rather than recessive, unless both 1. Sex-linked abnormalities
genes are recessive Turner’s syndrome (XO)
Mendel: cross-breeding strains of peas -Infertile,lack of puberty, webbed neck, stumpy fingers, low
Carrier: heterozygous individual passes recessive trait to spatial ability
offspring, but does not express it Superfemale/poly- X syndrome (XXX+)
Heterozygote child (Aa) through simple dominant-recessive -typical fertile female, low intelligence, the more X’s = more
inheritance pattern --> parents could be: AA & aa, intellectual impairment
Aa & Aa, Aa & aa, Aa & AA Klinefelter syndrome (XXY):
Codominance: two alleles produce phenotype expressing both -males have an extra X chromosome.
genes ex blood type AB -male with female 2nd sex characteristics, sterile, low verbal
Incomplete dominance : heterozygous allele is stronger intelligence
than other but fails to mask its effects ex sickle cells Supermale syndrome (XYY+): male has an extra Y
Flower of homozygotic red and homozygotic white flower chromosome.
(both alleles dominant) create flower with white and red -tall male, big teeth, fertile, no intellectual impairments
spots because there is codominance Fragile X syndrome
Sex-linked inheritance: traits determined by genes on sex -abnormality in X chromosome, more prevalent in men, mental
chromosomes retardation, seizures learning & attention deficits.
X-linked trait: recessive gene on X chromosome, more likely Autosome abnormalities
in males because only have one & females need on both X (spontaneous mutation= somatic))
in oder to show ex color blindness Down syndrome (extra copy of 21st chromosome = trisomy of
Polygenic inheritance: many genes determine trait ex height, 21st chromosome)
skin color, intelligence -intellectual impairment (ranges in severity), slow development,
congenital effects, stimulation influences development, distinct
physical features, flat head, protruding tongue, almond eyes.
Gene linked abnormalities
PKU
-inability to breakdown phenylalanine, accumulation of toxins
which causes mental retardation, may be prevented by diet
alterations
Sickle cell anemia
-alteration of red bloodcell shape, lack of oxygen to body parts,
unable to acquire malaria (benefit)
Diabetes
Prenatal Development -absence of insulin
Phases: Hemophilia
1. Germinal (Zygote): conception to implantation, 10-14 days -defect in blood clotting
Fertilized ovum (zygote) divides by mitosis, cells form Duchenne
structure blastocyst: inner layer=embryo & outer -attack on own muscles - motor capacity
layer=develop tissues to protect and nourish it Cystic fibrosis
Cell differentiation begins, zygote is not susceptible to -unable to clear mucus from body
teratogens yet Huntington’s disease
Implantation (7 to 10 days after ovulation, takes 48 hours): -dominant allele, expressed in adulthood, uncontrolled
blastocyst approaches uterus, reaches uterine wall and movements, emotional problems, and loss of thinking ability
uses mom’s blood supply (cognition)
Development of protective systems : implanted blastocyst’s Mutations
outer layer forms membranes -may lead to altered chemical structures of genes
- Amnion: fills with fluid from pregnant woman’s tissues -genetic abnormalities
(amniotic fluid), cushions organism against blows, regulates -changes in chemical structure of genes that produce new
temperature and provide weightless environment for embryo phenotype ex sickle cell gene
to move easier
- Chorion: surrounds amnion and becomes the placenta (semi-
permeable, provides respiration, nourishment
and elimination of metabolic wastes)
- Yolk sac: attached to chorion, produces blood cells until
embryo is capable
-Umbilical cord: contains blood vessels connecting embryo to
placenta
, 2. Embryonic period: (3rd to 8th week) 3. Fetal period: (9th week to birth)
Cell layers (embryonic disk) Period of rapid growth
- Ectoderm: (outer layer) becomes the nervous system, skin and major organs begin to function
hair individuality develops
- Neural tube: portion of ectoderm, becomes brain and spinal sexual differentiation progresses rapidly
cord covered in vernix (protects skin) and lanugo (body hair and
- Mesoderm: (middle layer) muscles, bones and circulatory helps vernix stick to skin)
system week 25-38= age of viablitiy:
- Endoderm: (inner layer) digestive system, lungs, urinary tract Reasonable ability to live and survival outside the uterus is
and vital organs like pancreas and liver possible.
End of 4th week heart is formed and starts to beat, facial Teratogens
fetures appear external agents that can harm developing embryo/fetus by
During 7 and 8th weeks, sexual development begins with causing deformaties
indifferent gonad How do they work:
Most vulnerable and susceptible to teratogens Sensitive period principle:
(mainly in embryonic phase)
- effects of teratogen are worst when fetus is forming and growing
rapidly.
- sensitive period: organism is most susceptible to environmental
influences
Individual difference principle:
- genetic susceptibility
- babies vary in the extent to which they
are affected by teratogens
(variation based on mothers
genes/babies genes/ prenatal
environment)
Dosage principle:
- longer exposure or higher dose leads
to harm
sleeper-effect principle:
- some teratogens are not apparent until
later
-Same defect can be caused by different
teratogens & variety of defects caused
by single teratogen
-Mother or father exposure to teratogen
can affect embryo/fetus
Drugs Nicotine (active or passive)
Thalidomide/softenon - Cleft lip/palette
Sedative/treats morning sickness - Impaired lung function
was tested, but turned out to cause deformation of the limbs in - Miscariage
babies - Low placenta functioning - oxygen/nutrients --> low weight &
DES academic skill
Drug to prevent miscarriage - ADHD
caused cervical cancer, reproductive organ abnormalities and - Increases effects of other teratogens by increasing transport
miscarriages in offspring across placenta
Alcohol Cocaine
- Fetal alcohol syndrome - Brain hemorrhages
more structural defects, small head, shorter in length, mental - Neuron damage
retardation due to lack of oxygen (impaired placenta & - Irritable behavior, higher blood pressure
intervenes with production and migration of neurons), - Lower IQ, premature birth
irritability, hyperactivity, low weight, trembling - Depression
- Fetal alcohol effects (less severe only after mild alcohol - Deadly withdrawal effect because of addiction
consumption) Heroin
impaired physical growth, motorskills, attention, intellect - Irritability, tremors, sleep disturbance. Child could grow up
Higher chance of miscarriage normally but secondary
Premature birth effects of environment (addicted mother) might cause
developmental issues.
