Issues and Debate
1)Gender and culture in Psychology: Gender bias
Universality- Any underlying characteristic of human beings who’s capable of being applied to
all (despite differences of experience and upbringing)
Gender bias- tendency to treat one individual or group differently from others
Androcentrism- when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to male standard
Alpha bias- focused on differences between men and women, therefore presents view that
exaggerates differences
Beta bias- focuses on similarities between men and women, presents view that
ignores/minimises differences
Universality
Psychologists seek universality but bias may be inevitable
Alpha bias
Exaggerates differences, presented as inevitable, tends to devalue females.
However, daughters and mothers have greater connectedness due to biological similarities,
therefore can bond and sympathise better
Beta bias
Underestimates differences (when conducting research) and applies findings equally to both
genders even when females are excluded.
Example: fight or flight response- based on male animals + assumed to be universal, tend and
befriend more common in females
Androcentrism
Leads to alpha or beta bias. Normal behaviour is judged from the male standard, e.g. female
aggression explained by premenstrual syndrome(PMS), male anger seen as rational
Evaluation:
-Gender differences often presented as fixed and enduring when they aren’t. (Social
stereotypes ( girls have better verbal ability, boys better spatial ability) presented as facts.
Suggests biological facts seen as social stereotypes.)
-Gender bias promotes sexism in the research process. (More male researchers and their
expectations about women may cause female participants to underperform in studies. Means
methods of psychology may produce gender-biased findings.)
2)Gender and culture in Psychology: Cultural bias
, Cultural bias- interpret all phenomena through ‘lens’ of one’s own culture, ignoring effects that
cultural differences may have on behaviour
Ethnocentrism- judging other cultures by standards+values of one’s own culture
Cultural relativism- idea that norms and values are meaningful and understood in specific social
and cultural contexts
68% of research- USA participants and 96% from industrialised countries.
80% undergraduates studying psychology
Strong cultural bias.
Ethnocentrism
E.G. Strange Situation reflected norms of American culture. Led to misinterpretation of
attachment type in other countries since they deviated from the American ‘norm’.
Cultural relativism
Etic approach- looks at behaviour from outside of given culture + describes behaviours as
universal
Emic approach- functions from inside a culture + identifies behaviours specific to that culture
E.G. Strange Situation is imposed etic- they studied behaviour inside one culture and assumed
ideal attachment type is universal.
Evaluation:
-most influential studies are culturally-biased. (Social influence research e.g. Asch findings in
individualist US, not replicated in collectivist cultures. Suggests understanding of topics (social
influence) only applied to individualist cultures)
-emergence of cultural psychology (studies how people shaped by their culture, uses emic
approach to avoid ethnocentrism. Suggests modern psychologists mindful of dangers of cultural
bias)
-led to prejudice against groups of people (early army IQ tests were ethnocentric, then used as
evidence that certain ethnic groups were genetically inferior. Illustrates how cultural bias used to
justify discrimination towards certain ethnic groups)
3)Free will and determinism
Free will- humans make choices and behaviour/thoughts aren’t determined by biological or
external factors
Determinism- individual’s behaviour controlled by internal/external forces rather than free will
Hard determinism- behaviour caused by something, free will is an illusion
Soft determinism- behaviour is predictable, restricted free will
Biological determinism- behaviour caused by uncontrollable biological influences
Environmental determinism- behaviour caused by uncontrollable features of environment
Psychic determinism- behaviour caused by uncontrollable unconscious psychodynamic conflicts
(repressed in childhood)
1)Gender and culture in Psychology: Gender bias
Universality- Any underlying characteristic of human beings who’s capable of being applied to
all (despite differences of experience and upbringing)
Gender bias- tendency to treat one individual or group differently from others
Androcentrism- when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged according to male standard
Alpha bias- focused on differences between men and women, therefore presents view that
exaggerates differences
Beta bias- focuses on similarities between men and women, presents view that
ignores/minimises differences
Universality
Psychologists seek universality but bias may be inevitable
Alpha bias
Exaggerates differences, presented as inevitable, tends to devalue females.
However, daughters and mothers have greater connectedness due to biological similarities,
therefore can bond and sympathise better
Beta bias
Underestimates differences (when conducting research) and applies findings equally to both
genders even when females are excluded.
Example: fight or flight response- based on male animals + assumed to be universal, tend and
befriend more common in females
Androcentrism
Leads to alpha or beta bias. Normal behaviour is judged from the male standard, e.g. female
aggression explained by premenstrual syndrome(PMS), male anger seen as rational
Evaluation:
-Gender differences often presented as fixed and enduring when they aren’t. (Social
stereotypes ( girls have better verbal ability, boys better spatial ability) presented as facts.
Suggests biological facts seen as social stereotypes.)
-Gender bias promotes sexism in the research process. (More male researchers and their
expectations about women may cause female participants to underperform in studies. Means
methods of psychology may produce gender-biased findings.)
2)Gender and culture in Psychology: Cultural bias
, Cultural bias- interpret all phenomena through ‘lens’ of one’s own culture, ignoring effects that
cultural differences may have on behaviour
Ethnocentrism- judging other cultures by standards+values of one’s own culture
Cultural relativism- idea that norms and values are meaningful and understood in specific social
and cultural contexts
68% of research- USA participants and 96% from industrialised countries.
80% undergraduates studying psychology
Strong cultural bias.
Ethnocentrism
E.G. Strange Situation reflected norms of American culture. Led to misinterpretation of
attachment type in other countries since they deviated from the American ‘norm’.
Cultural relativism
Etic approach- looks at behaviour from outside of given culture + describes behaviours as
universal
Emic approach- functions from inside a culture + identifies behaviours specific to that culture
E.G. Strange Situation is imposed etic- they studied behaviour inside one culture and assumed
ideal attachment type is universal.
Evaluation:
-most influential studies are culturally-biased. (Social influence research e.g. Asch findings in
individualist US, not replicated in collectivist cultures. Suggests understanding of topics (social
influence) only applied to individualist cultures)
-emergence of cultural psychology (studies how people shaped by their culture, uses emic
approach to avoid ethnocentrism. Suggests modern psychologists mindful of dangers of cultural
bias)
-led to prejudice against groups of people (early army IQ tests were ethnocentric, then used as
evidence that certain ethnic groups were genetically inferior. Illustrates how cultural bias used to
justify discrimination towards certain ethnic groups)
3)Free will and determinism
Free will- humans make choices and behaviour/thoughts aren’t determined by biological or
external factors
Determinism- individual’s behaviour controlled by internal/external forces rather than free will
Hard determinism- behaviour caused by something, free will is an illusion
Soft determinism- behaviour is predictable, restricted free will
Biological determinism- behaviour caused by uncontrollable biological influences
Environmental determinism- behaviour caused by uncontrollable features of environment
Psychic determinism- behaviour caused by uncontrollable unconscious psychodynamic conflicts
(repressed in childhood)
