History and Philosophy of Anatomy
Due to the social taboos regarding anatomy, grave robbing was the go to source of cadavers for
millennia
Anatomy in Western antiquity:
Anatomy as we know it did not exist during the classical period. The taboos surrounding dissection
prevented physicians from having access to bodies for study. Animal dissection was heavily relied on
instead, and finding were extrapolated to hypothesize about the human body.
Anatomy in the medieval period:
Dissection was depicted as similar to torture. It was highly frowned upon and could be condemned.
Later images showed surface anatomy in addition to text for medical students. Anatomy did not really
change in this time period. Galen was undisputed and was the only source of anatomical knowledge.
Barbers were the first to study anatomy and perform dissections.
Anatomy in the Renaissance period:
The gift of anatomy was given in the renaissance period. Artists became more and more enamoured
with accurate anatomical descriptions, both on the surface and beneath. Anatomists and artists worked
together to investigate the body’s inner structures. Andreas Vesalius wrote the tabulae sex, the most
accurate anatomy textbook to date. He believed that one had to perform dissections themselves to
ensure accuracy.
Anatomy in the pre-modern era:
Anatomy became essential in the practice of medicine. With dissections now becoming more common,
schools needed a constant source of bodies. This era gave rise to body snatching to accommodate the
new need for bodies. Anatomy slowly became used in bedside manner and soon became essential for
medicine.
Anatomy in the modern era:
Public attitude towards dissection has 180’d in the last century. The culture shift led to respect and
ethical treatment being the cornerstone of the practice. This cultural shift led to a massive increase in
body donation. This change also helped prevent the creation of “personally distant” doctors, as medical
students often put emotional and psychological barriers between themselves and the cadaver.
, Anatomy’s uncertain future:
Anatomy as a study has not had a linear evolution, but rather several peaks and dips throughout history.
As we enter a new dip in anatomy, the future of the practice is once again thrown into uncertainty. As
online learning becomes more present in our modern day, the question becomes if it can replace
anatomy or only support it.
History and Philosophy of Physiology:
Physiology is the study of life at all different levels. Physiologists study the normal function of whatever
life they are studying. Ethics are a highly important part of physiology as many studies are
invasive/cruel.
What is life?
There are two types of claims:
1. Descriptive Claims: The act of describing something, without adding any explicit or implicit
evaluation of it.
2. Normative Claims: The act of evaluating something.
Physiology in the Ancient World:
The ancient greeks believed that life was simply animated matter. The four elements - earth, air, fire,
and water – were thought to be transformed into four humors that were animated by a life force in the
bodies of living beings. Within this method of thought, disease was caused by an imbalance of humors
or a waning of the life force. Physiology was dominated by philosophy for most of antiquity, and then
anatomy after that. Observation and speculation were far more important than experimentation which
led to very minute amounts of evidence.
Vitalism and Mechanism:
- Mechanism reduces life to physical and chemical properties. An example of this is materialism,
which defines life in terms of tangible matter.
- Vitalism by contrast, is the view that life is governed by forces that cannot be reduced to
physical and chemical elements. This “life force” is harder to explain and is often conceived as a
soul or spirit.
These two forces are closely linked to the debate about the mind and body.
Teleology and Empiricism:
- Teleology: Why does life exist? Focus on the reasoning and speculation. Rooted in philosophy
- Empiricism: How does life exist? Focus on experimentation.
Speculation and Experimentation:
- Speculation: Basis of observation. Vital for forming scientific hypotheses.
Due to the social taboos regarding anatomy, grave robbing was the go to source of cadavers for
millennia
Anatomy in Western antiquity:
Anatomy as we know it did not exist during the classical period. The taboos surrounding dissection
prevented physicians from having access to bodies for study. Animal dissection was heavily relied on
instead, and finding were extrapolated to hypothesize about the human body.
Anatomy in the medieval period:
Dissection was depicted as similar to torture. It was highly frowned upon and could be condemned.
Later images showed surface anatomy in addition to text for medical students. Anatomy did not really
change in this time period. Galen was undisputed and was the only source of anatomical knowledge.
Barbers were the first to study anatomy and perform dissections.
Anatomy in the Renaissance period:
The gift of anatomy was given in the renaissance period. Artists became more and more enamoured
with accurate anatomical descriptions, both on the surface and beneath. Anatomists and artists worked
together to investigate the body’s inner structures. Andreas Vesalius wrote the tabulae sex, the most
accurate anatomy textbook to date. He believed that one had to perform dissections themselves to
ensure accuracy.
Anatomy in the pre-modern era:
Anatomy became essential in the practice of medicine. With dissections now becoming more common,
schools needed a constant source of bodies. This era gave rise to body snatching to accommodate the
new need for bodies. Anatomy slowly became used in bedside manner and soon became essential for
medicine.
Anatomy in the modern era:
Public attitude towards dissection has 180’d in the last century. The culture shift led to respect and
ethical treatment being the cornerstone of the practice. This cultural shift led to a massive increase in
body donation. This change also helped prevent the creation of “personally distant” doctors, as medical
students often put emotional and psychological barriers between themselves and the cadaver.
, Anatomy’s uncertain future:
Anatomy as a study has not had a linear evolution, but rather several peaks and dips throughout history.
As we enter a new dip in anatomy, the future of the practice is once again thrown into uncertainty. As
online learning becomes more present in our modern day, the question becomes if it can replace
anatomy or only support it.
History and Philosophy of Physiology:
Physiology is the study of life at all different levels. Physiologists study the normal function of whatever
life they are studying. Ethics are a highly important part of physiology as many studies are
invasive/cruel.
What is life?
There are two types of claims:
1. Descriptive Claims: The act of describing something, without adding any explicit or implicit
evaluation of it.
2. Normative Claims: The act of evaluating something.
Physiology in the Ancient World:
The ancient greeks believed that life was simply animated matter. The four elements - earth, air, fire,
and water – were thought to be transformed into four humors that were animated by a life force in the
bodies of living beings. Within this method of thought, disease was caused by an imbalance of humors
or a waning of the life force. Physiology was dominated by philosophy for most of antiquity, and then
anatomy after that. Observation and speculation were far more important than experimentation which
led to very minute amounts of evidence.
Vitalism and Mechanism:
- Mechanism reduces life to physical and chemical properties. An example of this is materialism,
which defines life in terms of tangible matter.
- Vitalism by contrast, is the view that life is governed by forces that cannot be reduced to
physical and chemical elements. This “life force” is harder to explain and is often conceived as a
soul or spirit.
These two forces are closely linked to the debate about the mind and body.
Teleology and Empiricism:
- Teleology: Why does life exist? Focus on the reasoning and speculation. Rooted in philosophy
- Empiricism: How does life exist? Focus on experimentation.
Speculation and Experimentation:
- Speculation: Basis of observation. Vital for forming scientific hypotheses.
