Leadership and Management
Lecture 1 – Introduction & Leadership
Why L&M?
In order to construct high-performing organizations, we need the right people to lead
and be led in the right way, so that employees stay motivated, and cooperate and
perform well (collectively)
The L&M course aims to provide some insights into how to do this
Leadership & management are important, regardless of who you work for
Leadership
We assume leaders as responsible for negative and positive performance.
What is leadership?
Social in nature and involves people. Includes leaders and followers
Leadership definitions:
o “A process of social influence whereby a leader steers member of a group
towards a goal” (Bryman, 1992)
o “A process of social influence in which one person is able to enlist the aid and
support of others in the accomplishment of a task” (Chemers, 2000)
Leadership and management
- Leadership = purpose-driven
- Management = objective/goal-driven. Based on rationality
- A good leader should be able to do both
‘Leaders are born, not made’
Some people believe that being a leader is either in one’s genes or not
What is more important?
o Nature… leaders are born
o Nurture… leaders are made
BOTH! For some it is easier to develop themselves as a leader (It depends
on the starting point), everyone can learn it.
History of leadership in theory and research
,Trait theories of leadership
Trait theories suggest that leaders are born (i.e. selection is important)
They consider how personality, social, physical and/or intellectual traits may
differentiate leaders from non-leaders
Personality has not been found to be very predictive, but in terms of the big five
personality framework:
o Extraversion is found to be the most important factor of the big 5 – although
it’s more predictive of leader emergence than leader effectiveness – i.e.
sociable/assertive people are more likely to assert themselves in group
situations
o Conscientiousness and openness to experience also show strong and
consistent relationships to leadership
How are physical traits associated with leadership?
o For example: height is related to leadership
Taller people are more likely to be leaders
And to earn higher salaries
o Also: overweight executives tend to get lower leadership ratings
o Possible evolutionary explanation (taller and fitter persons are perceived as
more leader-like)
While traits can predict leadership, they are better at predicting leader emergence
than effectiveness If you got these characteristics, it doesn’t mean you are a good
leader
Also, while traits help us to predict leadership, they don’t help us to explain
leadership. There is always an indirect effect between trait and the outcome of
leadership
The next set of theories suggest that leaders are made (i.e. training is important)
Styles
Why study leadership behavior?
Behavior is directly observable
Behavior can more easily be changed
Direct relationship with leadership effectiveness
Being able to distinguish (in)effective leadership behavior, will help us to design
leadership talent management systems: hire, develop, and promote the skills
necessary for leadership success
Key assumption: there are universally effective leadership behaviors
, How to study leadership behavior?
Approach to research:
o Identify differences in behavior between effective versus ineffective leaders
Methods:
o Observe leaders
o Interview/survey leaders about how they lead
o Interview/survey followers about their leaders’ behavior
o Diary studies with leaders (longitudinal perspective)
o Newer techniques: trackers (e.g. stress-level), daily pulse
Ohio State university research
Initiating structure: how much a leader emphasizes meeting work goals and
accomplishing tasks
o Leaders high in initiating structure engage in many different task-related
behaviors e.g. assigning deadlines, establishing performance standards and
monitoring performance levels
Consideration: how friendly and supportive a leader is towards followers
o Leaders high in consideration engage in many different behaviors that show
supportiveness and concern, such as speaking up for subordinates’ interests,
caring about their personal situations and showing appreciation for their work
Ohio state researchers believed that consideration and initiating structure
dimensions were independent continuums 2 dimensions: 4 leadership styles. You
can score low on one, and high on the other
Thus, they asked whether leaders that scored high on both dimensions, are more
effective than those that scored high on only one.
Initial leadership behavior research
University of Michigan Research: tried to identify leader behaviors that contributed
to effective group performance
o They identified four categories of leadership behaviors, namely:
(1) Goal emphasis
(2) Work facilitation
(3) Leader support show concern
(4) Interaction facilitation help to smooth things between
employees
o Goal emphasis and work facilitation were job-centered dimensions, thus
similar to the OSU dimension of initiating structure
o Leader support and interaction facilitation were employee-centered
dimensions, thus similar to the OSU dimensions of consideration
o UoM researchers considered job-centered and employee-centered leadership
to be at opposite ends of a single continuum of leadership behavior 1
dimension: either high on job-centered or employee-centered, not both!
o Thus, UoM researchers considered which type of leadership behavior was
more effective in helping teams to achieve their goals, job or employee-
centered leadership
Moving forward…
, The most effective leadership style also appears to depend on the criteria used to
judge effectiveness
o Consideration is especially important for follower satisfaction, motivation and
leader effectiveness
o Initiating structure is especially important for group/organizational
performance
In addition, it may be expected that the effectiveness of leader styles may vary
depending on the context i.e., the type of organization, national culture etc.
This suggests that a contingency approach may be needed.
Contingency Approach
Maybe leadership effectiveness depends on situational factors (i.e. under condition
‘a’, style ‘x’ would be appropriate, under condition ‘b’, style ‘y’ would be preferable),
in other words: it’s contingent. Leadership depends on the situation
We next turn to contingency theories
Contingency model variables
These approaches suggest that the most effective way for a leader to
behave depends on:
o Leader characteristics: traits, experience, skills
o Follower characteristics: capabilities, motivation
o Characteristics of the situation: task, structure, environment
Examples of contingency theories
(1) Path-Goal Theory (House & Dressler)
o Effective leaders ensure valued rewards (goals) and help followers (with
information, support, and other resources) (path) to attain these goals
o Four types of leaders were identified:
Directive focus on the work to be done
Lecture 1 – Introduction & Leadership
Why L&M?
In order to construct high-performing organizations, we need the right people to lead
and be led in the right way, so that employees stay motivated, and cooperate and
perform well (collectively)
The L&M course aims to provide some insights into how to do this
Leadership & management are important, regardless of who you work for
Leadership
We assume leaders as responsible for negative and positive performance.
What is leadership?
Social in nature and involves people. Includes leaders and followers
Leadership definitions:
o “A process of social influence whereby a leader steers member of a group
towards a goal” (Bryman, 1992)
o “A process of social influence in which one person is able to enlist the aid and
support of others in the accomplishment of a task” (Chemers, 2000)
Leadership and management
- Leadership = purpose-driven
- Management = objective/goal-driven. Based on rationality
- A good leader should be able to do both
‘Leaders are born, not made’
Some people believe that being a leader is either in one’s genes or not
What is more important?
o Nature… leaders are born
o Nurture… leaders are made
BOTH! For some it is easier to develop themselves as a leader (It depends
on the starting point), everyone can learn it.
History of leadership in theory and research
,Trait theories of leadership
Trait theories suggest that leaders are born (i.e. selection is important)
They consider how personality, social, physical and/or intellectual traits may
differentiate leaders from non-leaders
Personality has not been found to be very predictive, but in terms of the big five
personality framework:
o Extraversion is found to be the most important factor of the big 5 – although
it’s more predictive of leader emergence than leader effectiveness – i.e.
sociable/assertive people are more likely to assert themselves in group
situations
o Conscientiousness and openness to experience also show strong and
consistent relationships to leadership
How are physical traits associated with leadership?
o For example: height is related to leadership
Taller people are more likely to be leaders
And to earn higher salaries
o Also: overweight executives tend to get lower leadership ratings
o Possible evolutionary explanation (taller and fitter persons are perceived as
more leader-like)
While traits can predict leadership, they are better at predicting leader emergence
than effectiveness If you got these characteristics, it doesn’t mean you are a good
leader
Also, while traits help us to predict leadership, they don’t help us to explain
leadership. There is always an indirect effect between trait and the outcome of
leadership
The next set of theories suggest that leaders are made (i.e. training is important)
Styles
Why study leadership behavior?
Behavior is directly observable
Behavior can more easily be changed
Direct relationship with leadership effectiveness
Being able to distinguish (in)effective leadership behavior, will help us to design
leadership talent management systems: hire, develop, and promote the skills
necessary for leadership success
Key assumption: there are universally effective leadership behaviors
, How to study leadership behavior?
Approach to research:
o Identify differences in behavior between effective versus ineffective leaders
Methods:
o Observe leaders
o Interview/survey leaders about how they lead
o Interview/survey followers about their leaders’ behavior
o Diary studies with leaders (longitudinal perspective)
o Newer techniques: trackers (e.g. stress-level), daily pulse
Ohio State university research
Initiating structure: how much a leader emphasizes meeting work goals and
accomplishing tasks
o Leaders high in initiating structure engage in many different task-related
behaviors e.g. assigning deadlines, establishing performance standards and
monitoring performance levels
Consideration: how friendly and supportive a leader is towards followers
o Leaders high in consideration engage in many different behaviors that show
supportiveness and concern, such as speaking up for subordinates’ interests,
caring about their personal situations and showing appreciation for their work
Ohio state researchers believed that consideration and initiating structure
dimensions were independent continuums 2 dimensions: 4 leadership styles. You
can score low on one, and high on the other
Thus, they asked whether leaders that scored high on both dimensions, are more
effective than those that scored high on only one.
Initial leadership behavior research
University of Michigan Research: tried to identify leader behaviors that contributed
to effective group performance
o They identified four categories of leadership behaviors, namely:
(1) Goal emphasis
(2) Work facilitation
(3) Leader support show concern
(4) Interaction facilitation help to smooth things between
employees
o Goal emphasis and work facilitation were job-centered dimensions, thus
similar to the OSU dimension of initiating structure
o Leader support and interaction facilitation were employee-centered
dimensions, thus similar to the OSU dimensions of consideration
o UoM researchers considered job-centered and employee-centered leadership
to be at opposite ends of a single continuum of leadership behavior 1
dimension: either high on job-centered or employee-centered, not both!
o Thus, UoM researchers considered which type of leadership behavior was
more effective in helping teams to achieve their goals, job or employee-
centered leadership
Moving forward…
, The most effective leadership style also appears to depend on the criteria used to
judge effectiveness
o Consideration is especially important for follower satisfaction, motivation and
leader effectiveness
o Initiating structure is especially important for group/organizational
performance
In addition, it may be expected that the effectiveness of leader styles may vary
depending on the context i.e., the type of organization, national culture etc.
This suggests that a contingency approach may be needed.
Contingency Approach
Maybe leadership effectiveness depends on situational factors (i.e. under condition
‘a’, style ‘x’ would be appropriate, under condition ‘b’, style ‘y’ would be preferable),
in other words: it’s contingent. Leadership depends on the situation
We next turn to contingency theories
Contingency model variables
These approaches suggest that the most effective way for a leader to
behave depends on:
o Leader characteristics: traits, experience, skills
o Follower characteristics: capabilities, motivation
o Characteristics of the situation: task, structure, environment
Examples of contingency theories
(1) Path-Goal Theory (House & Dressler)
o Effective leaders ensure valued rewards (goals) and help followers (with
information, support, and other resources) (path) to attain these goals
o Four types of leaders were identified:
Directive focus on the work to be done
