Summary; Persuasive Communication
Chapter 1: Why study persuasion?
Two important issues about persuasion:
1. Persuasion is pervasive (= doordringend); we are surrounded by influence attempts, both explicit and
implicit, no matter where we are.
2. It is difficult to say with any certainty what is and is not "persuasion". Where should we draw the line
between persuasion and other forms of communication?
Aims and goals
Persuasion has been studied since the 1940s.
People aren't easy to persuade. Human beings are complex. They aren't that malleable (= kneedbaar). They can
be stubborn, unpredictable, and intractable (= onhandelbaar), despite the best efforts of persuaders.
Persuasion is our friend
Very little of the good that we see in the world could be accomplished without persuasion.
Persuasion is a powerful and often positive social force.
The pervasiveness of persuasion: you can run but you can't hide
Persuasion is a central feature of every sphere of human communication. We can't avoid it. We can't make it
go away. Persuasion is all around us. Various estimates suggest that the average person is exposed to
anywhere from 300 to 3000 messages per day.
It is fairly obvious that persuasion is an indispensable ingredient in a number of professions (in the so-called
people professions like politics, law, social work, counselling, advertising, sales, PR, etc.).
What's that buzz you're wearing?
Buzz marketing (also known as guerrilla marketing) is an illustration of the pervasiveness of persuasion.
Such marketing relies on word of mouth (WOM) to disseminate persuasive messages from person to person.
Because buzz marketing relies on friendships to spread positive word of mouth, it is essential that it be
perceived as genuine. Buzz marketing succeeds when it seems authentic rather than manufactured,
spontaneous rather than choreographed, and peer driven rather than corporate-sponsored. Buzz enjoys
several advantages over traditional advertising and marketing techniques:
It operates largely through interpersonal channels (face to face, cell phone, email, texting), lending it
an air of authenticity;
It is inexpensive compared to traditional media;
It is self-perpetuating. Buzz can multiply a message's impact exponentially;
Buzz is more effective than mainstream media at reaching younger audiences.
Tipping points
WOM is likened to a virus. Consistent with the viral metaphor, a message is spread via social networks until the
whole society is "infected". The message thus becomes self-perpetuating. And the publicity is free.
Once a message gains a certain amount of momentum, it reaches a tipping point and becomes "contagious" (=
besmettelijk). In order to reach the tipping point a number of things have to happen.
1. Uber Influencers
The right kinds of people must be involved in spreading the message. 3 types of people are essential to the
process:
I. Mavens (= experts): They possess specialized expertise. Mavens needn't be rich or famous,
but they must be ahead of the curve. They are the early adopters. Such people are also called
influentials, opinion leaders who shape others' opinions.
II. Connectors: They are the carriers. They have larger social networks. They know everyone.
When connectors learn from mavens what the "next big thing" is, they spread the word.
III. Salespeople: They receive the message from a connector and then sell it to their own smaller
circle of friends. Unlike mavens, salespeople are friendly and outgoing.
, 2. Orchestrating the next big thing
Context is critical. The idea must come along at the right time and place.
An idea must also possess stickiness, which means it is inherently attractive. Without some sort of natural
appeal, people won't gravitate toward the idea or pass it along.
Scalability is another requirement. It must be easy to ramp up production of the idea, product, or message to
meet demand.
Effortless transfer is yet another ingredient in the recipe for an effective viral campaign. For a virus to spread, it
must be communicable. A viral campaign has to leverage free media, hence the reliance on "word of mouse".
Ideas that can be spread by forwarding an email, including an attachment, or embedding a link are easy to
disseminate. The more time, effort, or money it takes to spread the word, the less likely the idea will go viral.
3. Infectious or inexplicable
Despite the popularity of viral persuasion, the phenomenon itself isn't that predictable or easy to manufacture.
Many messages go viral, but few are planned, deliberate efforts to persuade.
The very concept of viral marketing is something of an oxymoron. A viral campaign is planned to appear
unplanned. It is contrived to seem genuine. The more prevalent the practice becomes, the more people will
become sensitized to it and the less effective it will be. Despite these shortcomings, traditional persuasion is no
more effective.
Persuasion in the sciences
Thomas Kuhn (1970) argues that all scientists employ "techniques of persuasion in their efforts to establish the
superiority of their own paradigms over those of their rivals".
Scientists must do more than take measurements and conduct experiments. They must also persuade other
scientists, funding agencies, and the public at large.
Persuasion in the arts
Art serves more than an aesthetic or decorative function. Artists have strong opinions, and they don't always
keep them to themselves. They lend expression to their opinions in and through their work.
Weird persuasion
Sometimes persuasion is downright weird, so persuasion can be found in obvious and not-so-obvious places.
In this section of the book some examples of weird persuasion (p. 8-9).
Persuasion in interpersonal settings
Interpersonal encounters, no matter where they take place, function as major arteries for persuasion. The
extent of influence exerted in the interpersonal arena should not be underestimated. In fact, persuasion is
most effective in face-to-face interaction. Why? Because influence attempts tend to operate less conspicuously
(= opvallend) in interpersonal encounters.
Persuasion tends to operate at maximum effectiveness in interpersonal settings, becaue we aren't always
aware of what is going on.
Persuasion functions as a pervasive force in virtually every facet of human communication.
Four benefits of studying persuasion
The instrumental function: be all that you can be
We view the ability to persuade others as an important aspect of communication competence. Communication
competence involves acting in ways that are perceived as effective and appropriate by oneself and others.
A competent persuader needs to be viewed as persuading in acceptable, appropriate ways. This means a
persuader must be aware of social and cultural norms governing the persuasive situation.
The knowledge and awareness function: inquiring minds want to know
Learning about persuasion will enhance your knowledge and awareness of a variety of persuasive processes.
An additional benefit of learning about how persuasion functions concerns overcoming habitual persuasion:
persuasion is a second nature to us, like breathing. We've been doing it all over our lives and many people rely
on habitual forms of persuasion. They get comfortable with a few strategies and tactics that they use over and
over again, regardless of whether they are effective. A good deal of our communication behavior is "mindless:,
as opposed to mindful, meaning we don't pay much attention to how we communicate.
, The defensive function: duck and cover
If you know how persuasion works, you are less likely to be taken in.
Third-person effect: people tend to underestimate the influence of advertising on themselves and overestimate
its effect on others.
The debunking function: puh-shaw
Persuasion serves a debunking (=ontmaskeren) function. The study of human influence can aid in dispelling
various "commonsense" (= gezond verstand) assumptions and "homespun" theories about persuasion.
Traditional wisdom isn't always right, and it's worth knowing when it's wrong.
Of considerable importance are empirical findings that are counterintuitive in nature - that is, they go against
the grain of common sense. By learning about research findings on persuasion, the reader can learn to ferret
out the true from the false, the fact from the fiction.
Two criticisms of persuasion
Does learning about persuasion foster manipulation?
The notion that persuasion fosters a manipulative approach to communication is a common criticism of
studying persuasion. But the principal focus of the book is on the means of persuasion (e.g., how persuasion
functions).
Tools can be used in good or bad ways, depending on their user. First and foremost, a persuader's motives
determine whether a given influence attempt is good or bad, right or wrong, ethical or unethical. We maintain
that the moral quality of a persuasive act is derived primarily from the ends a persuader seeks, and only
secondarily from the means the persuader employs. It isn't so much what strategies and tactics a persuader
uses as why he or she uses them.
Also, the study of persuasion forms a defensive function insofar as it educates people to become more
discriminating consumers of persuasive messages.
At last, in denouncing the study of persuasion, anti-manipulation types are also attempting to persuade. The
message that persuasion is manipulative is itself a persuasive appeal that seeks to engender certain attitudes,
beliefs, and values.
Are persuasion findings too inconsistent or confusing?
An additional complaint that has been levelled against the study of persuasion is that it has led to findings that
are overly qualified, or contradictory in nature. Empirical investigations of persuasion have not yielded clear
and consistent generalizations.
There seems to be the expectation that reality is, or should be, simple and uncomplicated. But human beings
are complex creatures who rarely respond to messages for one and only reason.
Also, research has revealed a number of significant, relevant generalizations about persuasion. Newer
techniques of statistical analysis, such as meta-analysis, have made it possible to reconcile some of the
previous inconsistencies in the literature.
Ethical concerns about the use of persuasion
Our position is that in learning how to become a more effective persuader, you should strive to be an ethical
persuader as well.
Chapter 2: What constitutes persuasion?
Adding to the difficulty of defining persuasion is the fact that persuasion also goes by a variety of other names.
Some of its aliases include terms such as advising, brainwashing, coercion, compliance gaining, convincing,
education, indoctrination, influence, manipulation, and propaganda. Whether these terms are considered
pseudonyms for persuasion, or simply related terms, depends on one's definition of persuasion.
Pure versus borderline cases of persuasion
Pure persuasion: clear-cut cases of persuasion, on which most people would agree. Such cases represent
"paradigm cases" of persuasion because they are at the core of what we think of when we envision persuasion
at work.
Borderline cases: persuasion cases that lie closer to the boundary of periphery of what we normally think of as
persuasion. These cases are less clear-cut, more "iffy". Much of the disparity in definitions is rooted in the fact
Chapter 1: Why study persuasion?
Two important issues about persuasion:
1. Persuasion is pervasive (= doordringend); we are surrounded by influence attempts, both explicit and
implicit, no matter where we are.
2. It is difficult to say with any certainty what is and is not "persuasion". Where should we draw the line
between persuasion and other forms of communication?
Aims and goals
Persuasion has been studied since the 1940s.
People aren't easy to persuade. Human beings are complex. They aren't that malleable (= kneedbaar). They can
be stubborn, unpredictable, and intractable (= onhandelbaar), despite the best efforts of persuaders.
Persuasion is our friend
Very little of the good that we see in the world could be accomplished without persuasion.
Persuasion is a powerful and often positive social force.
The pervasiveness of persuasion: you can run but you can't hide
Persuasion is a central feature of every sphere of human communication. We can't avoid it. We can't make it
go away. Persuasion is all around us. Various estimates suggest that the average person is exposed to
anywhere from 300 to 3000 messages per day.
It is fairly obvious that persuasion is an indispensable ingredient in a number of professions (in the so-called
people professions like politics, law, social work, counselling, advertising, sales, PR, etc.).
What's that buzz you're wearing?
Buzz marketing (also known as guerrilla marketing) is an illustration of the pervasiveness of persuasion.
Such marketing relies on word of mouth (WOM) to disseminate persuasive messages from person to person.
Because buzz marketing relies on friendships to spread positive word of mouth, it is essential that it be
perceived as genuine. Buzz marketing succeeds when it seems authentic rather than manufactured,
spontaneous rather than choreographed, and peer driven rather than corporate-sponsored. Buzz enjoys
several advantages over traditional advertising and marketing techniques:
It operates largely through interpersonal channels (face to face, cell phone, email, texting), lending it
an air of authenticity;
It is inexpensive compared to traditional media;
It is self-perpetuating. Buzz can multiply a message's impact exponentially;
Buzz is more effective than mainstream media at reaching younger audiences.
Tipping points
WOM is likened to a virus. Consistent with the viral metaphor, a message is spread via social networks until the
whole society is "infected". The message thus becomes self-perpetuating. And the publicity is free.
Once a message gains a certain amount of momentum, it reaches a tipping point and becomes "contagious" (=
besmettelijk). In order to reach the tipping point a number of things have to happen.
1. Uber Influencers
The right kinds of people must be involved in spreading the message. 3 types of people are essential to the
process:
I. Mavens (= experts): They possess specialized expertise. Mavens needn't be rich or famous,
but they must be ahead of the curve. They are the early adopters. Such people are also called
influentials, opinion leaders who shape others' opinions.
II. Connectors: They are the carriers. They have larger social networks. They know everyone.
When connectors learn from mavens what the "next big thing" is, they spread the word.
III. Salespeople: They receive the message from a connector and then sell it to their own smaller
circle of friends. Unlike mavens, salespeople are friendly and outgoing.
, 2. Orchestrating the next big thing
Context is critical. The idea must come along at the right time and place.
An idea must also possess stickiness, which means it is inherently attractive. Without some sort of natural
appeal, people won't gravitate toward the idea or pass it along.
Scalability is another requirement. It must be easy to ramp up production of the idea, product, or message to
meet demand.
Effortless transfer is yet another ingredient in the recipe for an effective viral campaign. For a virus to spread, it
must be communicable. A viral campaign has to leverage free media, hence the reliance on "word of mouse".
Ideas that can be spread by forwarding an email, including an attachment, or embedding a link are easy to
disseminate. The more time, effort, or money it takes to spread the word, the less likely the idea will go viral.
3. Infectious or inexplicable
Despite the popularity of viral persuasion, the phenomenon itself isn't that predictable or easy to manufacture.
Many messages go viral, but few are planned, deliberate efforts to persuade.
The very concept of viral marketing is something of an oxymoron. A viral campaign is planned to appear
unplanned. It is contrived to seem genuine. The more prevalent the practice becomes, the more people will
become sensitized to it and the less effective it will be. Despite these shortcomings, traditional persuasion is no
more effective.
Persuasion in the sciences
Thomas Kuhn (1970) argues that all scientists employ "techniques of persuasion in their efforts to establish the
superiority of their own paradigms over those of their rivals".
Scientists must do more than take measurements and conduct experiments. They must also persuade other
scientists, funding agencies, and the public at large.
Persuasion in the arts
Art serves more than an aesthetic or decorative function. Artists have strong opinions, and they don't always
keep them to themselves. They lend expression to their opinions in and through their work.
Weird persuasion
Sometimes persuasion is downright weird, so persuasion can be found in obvious and not-so-obvious places.
In this section of the book some examples of weird persuasion (p. 8-9).
Persuasion in interpersonal settings
Interpersonal encounters, no matter where they take place, function as major arteries for persuasion. The
extent of influence exerted in the interpersonal arena should not be underestimated. In fact, persuasion is
most effective in face-to-face interaction. Why? Because influence attempts tend to operate less conspicuously
(= opvallend) in interpersonal encounters.
Persuasion tends to operate at maximum effectiveness in interpersonal settings, becaue we aren't always
aware of what is going on.
Persuasion functions as a pervasive force in virtually every facet of human communication.
Four benefits of studying persuasion
The instrumental function: be all that you can be
We view the ability to persuade others as an important aspect of communication competence. Communication
competence involves acting in ways that are perceived as effective and appropriate by oneself and others.
A competent persuader needs to be viewed as persuading in acceptable, appropriate ways. This means a
persuader must be aware of social and cultural norms governing the persuasive situation.
The knowledge and awareness function: inquiring minds want to know
Learning about persuasion will enhance your knowledge and awareness of a variety of persuasive processes.
An additional benefit of learning about how persuasion functions concerns overcoming habitual persuasion:
persuasion is a second nature to us, like breathing. We've been doing it all over our lives and many people rely
on habitual forms of persuasion. They get comfortable with a few strategies and tactics that they use over and
over again, regardless of whether they are effective. A good deal of our communication behavior is "mindless:,
as opposed to mindful, meaning we don't pay much attention to how we communicate.
, The defensive function: duck and cover
If you know how persuasion works, you are less likely to be taken in.
Third-person effect: people tend to underestimate the influence of advertising on themselves and overestimate
its effect on others.
The debunking function: puh-shaw
Persuasion serves a debunking (=ontmaskeren) function. The study of human influence can aid in dispelling
various "commonsense" (= gezond verstand) assumptions and "homespun" theories about persuasion.
Traditional wisdom isn't always right, and it's worth knowing when it's wrong.
Of considerable importance are empirical findings that are counterintuitive in nature - that is, they go against
the grain of common sense. By learning about research findings on persuasion, the reader can learn to ferret
out the true from the false, the fact from the fiction.
Two criticisms of persuasion
Does learning about persuasion foster manipulation?
The notion that persuasion fosters a manipulative approach to communication is a common criticism of
studying persuasion. But the principal focus of the book is on the means of persuasion (e.g., how persuasion
functions).
Tools can be used in good or bad ways, depending on their user. First and foremost, a persuader's motives
determine whether a given influence attempt is good or bad, right or wrong, ethical or unethical. We maintain
that the moral quality of a persuasive act is derived primarily from the ends a persuader seeks, and only
secondarily from the means the persuader employs. It isn't so much what strategies and tactics a persuader
uses as why he or she uses them.
Also, the study of persuasion forms a defensive function insofar as it educates people to become more
discriminating consumers of persuasive messages.
At last, in denouncing the study of persuasion, anti-manipulation types are also attempting to persuade. The
message that persuasion is manipulative is itself a persuasive appeal that seeks to engender certain attitudes,
beliefs, and values.
Are persuasion findings too inconsistent or confusing?
An additional complaint that has been levelled against the study of persuasion is that it has led to findings that
are overly qualified, or contradictory in nature. Empirical investigations of persuasion have not yielded clear
and consistent generalizations.
There seems to be the expectation that reality is, or should be, simple and uncomplicated. But human beings
are complex creatures who rarely respond to messages for one and only reason.
Also, research has revealed a number of significant, relevant generalizations about persuasion. Newer
techniques of statistical analysis, such as meta-analysis, have made it possible to reconcile some of the
previous inconsistencies in the literature.
Ethical concerns about the use of persuasion
Our position is that in learning how to become a more effective persuader, you should strive to be an ethical
persuader as well.
Chapter 2: What constitutes persuasion?
Adding to the difficulty of defining persuasion is the fact that persuasion also goes by a variety of other names.
Some of its aliases include terms such as advising, brainwashing, coercion, compliance gaining, convincing,
education, indoctrination, influence, manipulation, and propaganda. Whether these terms are considered
pseudonyms for persuasion, or simply related terms, depends on one's definition of persuasion.
Pure versus borderline cases of persuasion
Pure persuasion: clear-cut cases of persuasion, on which most people would agree. Such cases represent
"paradigm cases" of persuasion because they are at the core of what we think of when we envision persuasion
at work.
Borderline cases: persuasion cases that lie closer to the boundary of periphery of what we normally think of as
persuasion. These cases are less clear-cut, more "iffy". Much of the disparity in definitions is rooted in the fact
