1
Chapter 4: Perception, Attribution, and the Management of Diversity
Nature of Perception
perception = process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret the input from their senses
- perceiver = person trying to interpret something
- target of perception = thing the perceiver is trying to make sense of
- situation = context in which perception takes place
- perceptual process not always yield accurate perceptions (= perceptions as close as possible to
the true nature of the target of perception) → even when trying to be objective often biased
views → understanding of this = sign implications for understanding organizational behavior
- inaccurate perceptions: hurt employee and organization
Motivation and Performance
- managers need to make sure that subordinates are motivated to perform at high levels
- the more accurately managers perceive subordinates, the better able they are to motivate them
- accurate perceptions also help managers relate to each other and enable members at all levels to
work together to achieve organizational goals
Fairness and Equity
- in order to have an effective global workforce, all members of an organization need to be treated
fairly
- attracting and retaining a global workforce requires that employees’ capabilities & performances
are accurately perceived and that all employees are treated fairly, regardless of ethnicity &
gender
Ethical Action
- accurately perceiving diverse members of an organization and their abilities, skills and
performance levels is a legal requirement and ethical necessity
Characteristics of the Perceiver
Schemas: The Perceiver’s Knowledge Base
schema = an abstract knowledge
structure stored in memory that makes
possible the organization &
interpretation of info about a target of
perception
→ schemas determine how the target is perceived
- help interpret the world using past experiences and knowledge
- selecting sensory input consistent w/ existing schemas and discounting or ignoring
inconsistent input → reinforce and strengthen schemas → schemas are often resistant to
change but not immutable
, 2
- functionality of schemas: mostly functional for perceivers → act like filter for info that is
perceived important
→ can help learn about and adapt to complex environments (e.g. a firm)
→ can be dysfunctional when result in inaccurate perceptions + are often also dysfunctional
for target of perception
- stereotypes (example for dysfunctional schemas): stereotype = set of overly simplified and often
inaccurate beliefs about the typical characteristics of a particular groups
→ dysfunctional because: often based on inaccurate info → often individual is assigned to
stereotyped group only because they have one striking characteristic
→ cause discrimination in workplace and in general
→ think of it, act against w/ workshops etc.→ improve but still have to guard from
→ result: illegal to discriminate against people because of gender, race, and age → lawsuit
The Perceiver’s Motivational State
perceiver’s motivational state = needs, values, and desires of a perceiver at the time of perception
- influence on perception → see and hear what you want to
- can result in inaccurate perception and faulty decisions
- need to be aware of own motivation because faulty decisions because of inaccurate perception
can have drastic outcomes
The Perceiver’s Mood
perceiver’s mood = how a perceiver feels at the time of perception
- pos moods: more likely to perceive coworker, supervisors, subordinates and even their jobs in a
more pos light than when in a bad mood
Characteristics of the Target and Situation
Ambiguity of a Target
ambiguity = lack of clearness
- increasing ambiguity = increasingly difficult for perceiver to from accurate perception →
higher potential for error in perception
- when ambiguous target → often several perceivers come to different conclusions
- when target is ambiguous → beware of overconfidence about accuracy of perception + look
for additional info
Social Status of the Target
social status = person’s real or perceived position in society or in an organization
- bias: high SES = high intelligence, more credible, more knowledgeable, more responsible
- often SES is used to oversee good or bad skills → high SES often used for representative
reasons
- affirmative-action programs → used to equal out SES and other biases → BUT sometimes
perpetuate the problems and stereotypes → often then even seen more as second-class
citizens
Impression Management by the Target
impression management = attempt to control the perceptions or impressions of others → tactics
→ especially when interacting w/ a perceiver who has power over them or they are dependent on
→ 2-way street
- behavioral matching = target of perception matches their behavior to that of the perceiver
, 3
- self-promotion = target tries to present themself in as positive a light as possible
- conforming to situational norms = target followers agreed-upon rules for behavior in the
organization
- appreciating or flattering others = target compliments the perceiver. This tactic works best
when flattery is not extreme and when it involves a dimension important to the perceiver
- being consistent = target’s beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There is agreement between
target’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors
Information Provided by the Situation
situation = context or environment surrounding the perceiver and the target
Standing Out in the Crowd: The Effects of Salience in a Situation
salience = extent to which a target of perception stands out in a group of people or things
- often feels very self-conscious and conspicuous → beliefs that everyone is watching them →
other people also pay more attention to a salient person → salience does affect the perception
of target → outcomes
- extreme evaluations: more extreme pos or neg evaluation + are seen as more influential and
responsible for what happens to them and their group
- stereotyping: perceivers consider the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of salient people as more
consistent w/ their distinguishing feature then when not salient
→ can extremely affect performance of salient person → stereotype threat
→ can cause racial jokes and impairment and different treatment
→ stereotypes groups: people w/ disabilities, women, minorities
Biases and Problems in Person Perception
bias = systematic tendency to use or interpret information in a way that results in inaccurate
perceptions → likely to cause inappropriate decisions
Primary Effects = biased perception that results when the first information that a perceiver has
about a target has an inordinately large influence on the perceiver’s perception on the target
- common problem in interviews (decision is most often formed in the first few minutes)
- also problem in perception and evaluation of long-time members of an organization →
doesn’t see improvement or decrease in work of subordinate because of first impression
Contrast Effects = biased perception that results when perceptions of a target person are distorted
by the perceiver’s perception of others → stick out more
Halo Effects = biased perception that results when the perceiver’s general impression of a target
distorts their perception of the target on specific dimensions
- can be positive (= oversee many mistakes because of good overall impression) and negative (=
pick out every small mistake and overshadow many good qualities)
Similar-to-Me Effects
- more likely to like people sim to oneself more
- very important to overcome given today's diversity in organizations
Harshness, Leniency and Average Tendency Biases
- all named tendencies are problematic: 1. not correctly perceive variations in performance →
not get right feedback; 2. make it difficult to evaluate and compare the performance of
subordinates w/ different supervisors
Knowledge-of-Predictor Bias = biased perception that results when knowing a target’s standing on
a predictor of performance influences the perceiver’s perception of the target
, 4
- sometimes results in self-fulfilling prophecy = prediction that comes true because a perceiver
expects it to come true
Attribution Theory
attribution = explanation of the cause of behavior
attribution theory = group of theories that describes how people explain the causes of behavior
- interested in why people behave the way they do and what can be done to change their behavior
- in organizations: decisions made and actions taken = based on attributions → when accurate
good decisions; when not accurate bad decisions
- often: reaction to good or bad performance based on attributions
External and Internal Attributions
internal attributions = attributions that assigns the cause of behavior to some characteristic of the
target → ability, effort, and personality
external attributions = attribution that assigns the cause of behavior to outside forces → task
difficulty and luck
- attributions made for own behavior also influence own subsequent actions
Attributional Biases
- fundamental attribution error = tendency to overattribute behavior to internal rather than to
external causes
→ occurs because of 1) concentration on perception of the target’s behavior → focus on
person not situation
→ often simply unaware of the situational factors responsible for targets behavior
- actor-observer effect = tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal causes and to
attribute one’s behavior to external causes
→ tend to think other people's behavior is caused by internal factors (stable) but ours to
external factors (variable)
→ greater focus on situation when we ourself behave → aware of external factors
- self-serving attribution = tendency to take credit for successes and avoid blame for failures
→ accepting credit for success is more common than avoiding blame for failure
→ works opposite way for target behavior perception
Effectively Managing a Diverse Workforce
Securing Top-Management Commitment to Diversity
- top management commitment to diversity is absolutely necessary for effectively managing a
diverse workforce
- top managers: high levels of authority, power, and status; encourage other members of
organization to be committed in diversity; devote resources to effective management
- helps to ensure that employee behavior is seen in right light
Diversity Training
- can facilitate the management of diverse workforces → objects used in training:
- making explicit and breaking down stereotypes in organisation
- make aware of different kinds of backgrounds, experiences and values
- show how to deal effectively w/ diversity-related conflicts and tensions
- can last hours, days etc. and includes (but not limited to): role-play, self-awareness activities and
awareness activities
Chapter 4: Perception, Attribution, and the Management of Diversity
Nature of Perception
perception = process by which individuals select, organize, and interpret the input from their senses
- perceiver = person trying to interpret something
- target of perception = thing the perceiver is trying to make sense of
- situation = context in which perception takes place
- perceptual process not always yield accurate perceptions (= perceptions as close as possible to
the true nature of the target of perception) → even when trying to be objective often biased
views → understanding of this = sign implications for understanding organizational behavior
- inaccurate perceptions: hurt employee and organization
Motivation and Performance
- managers need to make sure that subordinates are motivated to perform at high levels
- the more accurately managers perceive subordinates, the better able they are to motivate them
- accurate perceptions also help managers relate to each other and enable members at all levels to
work together to achieve organizational goals
Fairness and Equity
- in order to have an effective global workforce, all members of an organization need to be treated
fairly
- attracting and retaining a global workforce requires that employees’ capabilities & performances
are accurately perceived and that all employees are treated fairly, regardless of ethnicity &
gender
Ethical Action
- accurately perceiving diverse members of an organization and their abilities, skills and
performance levels is a legal requirement and ethical necessity
Characteristics of the Perceiver
Schemas: The Perceiver’s Knowledge Base
schema = an abstract knowledge
structure stored in memory that makes
possible the organization &
interpretation of info about a target of
perception
→ schemas determine how the target is perceived
- help interpret the world using past experiences and knowledge
- selecting sensory input consistent w/ existing schemas and discounting or ignoring
inconsistent input → reinforce and strengthen schemas → schemas are often resistant to
change but not immutable
, 2
- functionality of schemas: mostly functional for perceivers → act like filter for info that is
perceived important
→ can help learn about and adapt to complex environments (e.g. a firm)
→ can be dysfunctional when result in inaccurate perceptions + are often also dysfunctional
for target of perception
- stereotypes (example for dysfunctional schemas): stereotype = set of overly simplified and often
inaccurate beliefs about the typical characteristics of a particular groups
→ dysfunctional because: often based on inaccurate info → often individual is assigned to
stereotyped group only because they have one striking characteristic
→ cause discrimination in workplace and in general
→ think of it, act against w/ workshops etc.→ improve but still have to guard from
→ result: illegal to discriminate against people because of gender, race, and age → lawsuit
The Perceiver’s Motivational State
perceiver’s motivational state = needs, values, and desires of a perceiver at the time of perception
- influence on perception → see and hear what you want to
- can result in inaccurate perception and faulty decisions
- need to be aware of own motivation because faulty decisions because of inaccurate perception
can have drastic outcomes
The Perceiver’s Mood
perceiver’s mood = how a perceiver feels at the time of perception
- pos moods: more likely to perceive coworker, supervisors, subordinates and even their jobs in a
more pos light than when in a bad mood
Characteristics of the Target and Situation
Ambiguity of a Target
ambiguity = lack of clearness
- increasing ambiguity = increasingly difficult for perceiver to from accurate perception →
higher potential for error in perception
- when ambiguous target → often several perceivers come to different conclusions
- when target is ambiguous → beware of overconfidence about accuracy of perception + look
for additional info
Social Status of the Target
social status = person’s real or perceived position in society or in an organization
- bias: high SES = high intelligence, more credible, more knowledgeable, more responsible
- often SES is used to oversee good or bad skills → high SES often used for representative
reasons
- affirmative-action programs → used to equal out SES and other biases → BUT sometimes
perpetuate the problems and stereotypes → often then even seen more as second-class
citizens
Impression Management by the Target
impression management = attempt to control the perceptions or impressions of others → tactics
→ especially when interacting w/ a perceiver who has power over them or they are dependent on
→ 2-way street
- behavioral matching = target of perception matches their behavior to that of the perceiver
, 3
- self-promotion = target tries to present themself in as positive a light as possible
- conforming to situational norms = target followers agreed-upon rules for behavior in the
organization
- appreciating or flattering others = target compliments the perceiver. This tactic works best
when flattery is not extreme and when it involves a dimension important to the perceiver
- being consistent = target’s beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There is agreement between
target’s verbal and nonverbal behaviors
Information Provided by the Situation
situation = context or environment surrounding the perceiver and the target
Standing Out in the Crowd: The Effects of Salience in a Situation
salience = extent to which a target of perception stands out in a group of people or things
- often feels very self-conscious and conspicuous → beliefs that everyone is watching them →
other people also pay more attention to a salient person → salience does affect the perception
of target → outcomes
- extreme evaluations: more extreme pos or neg evaluation + are seen as more influential and
responsible for what happens to them and their group
- stereotyping: perceivers consider the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of salient people as more
consistent w/ their distinguishing feature then when not salient
→ can extremely affect performance of salient person → stereotype threat
→ can cause racial jokes and impairment and different treatment
→ stereotypes groups: people w/ disabilities, women, minorities
Biases and Problems in Person Perception
bias = systematic tendency to use or interpret information in a way that results in inaccurate
perceptions → likely to cause inappropriate decisions
Primary Effects = biased perception that results when the first information that a perceiver has
about a target has an inordinately large influence on the perceiver’s perception on the target
- common problem in interviews (decision is most often formed in the first few minutes)
- also problem in perception and evaluation of long-time members of an organization →
doesn’t see improvement or decrease in work of subordinate because of first impression
Contrast Effects = biased perception that results when perceptions of a target person are distorted
by the perceiver’s perception of others → stick out more
Halo Effects = biased perception that results when the perceiver’s general impression of a target
distorts their perception of the target on specific dimensions
- can be positive (= oversee many mistakes because of good overall impression) and negative (=
pick out every small mistake and overshadow many good qualities)
Similar-to-Me Effects
- more likely to like people sim to oneself more
- very important to overcome given today's diversity in organizations
Harshness, Leniency and Average Tendency Biases
- all named tendencies are problematic: 1. not correctly perceive variations in performance →
not get right feedback; 2. make it difficult to evaluate and compare the performance of
subordinates w/ different supervisors
Knowledge-of-Predictor Bias = biased perception that results when knowing a target’s standing on
a predictor of performance influences the perceiver’s perception of the target
, 4
- sometimes results in self-fulfilling prophecy = prediction that comes true because a perceiver
expects it to come true
Attribution Theory
attribution = explanation of the cause of behavior
attribution theory = group of theories that describes how people explain the causes of behavior
- interested in why people behave the way they do and what can be done to change their behavior
- in organizations: decisions made and actions taken = based on attributions → when accurate
good decisions; when not accurate bad decisions
- often: reaction to good or bad performance based on attributions
External and Internal Attributions
internal attributions = attributions that assigns the cause of behavior to some characteristic of the
target → ability, effort, and personality
external attributions = attribution that assigns the cause of behavior to outside forces → task
difficulty and luck
- attributions made for own behavior also influence own subsequent actions
Attributional Biases
- fundamental attribution error = tendency to overattribute behavior to internal rather than to
external causes
→ occurs because of 1) concentration on perception of the target’s behavior → focus on
person not situation
→ often simply unaware of the situational factors responsible for targets behavior
- actor-observer effect = tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal causes and to
attribute one’s behavior to external causes
→ tend to think other people's behavior is caused by internal factors (stable) but ours to
external factors (variable)
→ greater focus on situation when we ourself behave → aware of external factors
- self-serving attribution = tendency to take credit for successes and avoid blame for failures
→ accepting credit for success is more common than avoiding blame for failure
→ works opposite way for target behavior perception
Effectively Managing a Diverse Workforce
Securing Top-Management Commitment to Diversity
- top management commitment to diversity is absolutely necessary for effectively managing a
diverse workforce
- top managers: high levels of authority, power, and status; encourage other members of
organization to be committed in diversity; devote resources to effective management
- helps to ensure that employee behavior is seen in right light
Diversity Training
- can facilitate the management of diverse workforces → objects used in training:
- making explicit and breaking down stereotypes in organisation
- make aware of different kinds of backgrounds, experiences and values
- show how to deal effectively w/ diversity-related conflicts and tensions
- can last hours, days etc. and includes (but not limited to): role-play, self-awareness activities and
awareness activities
