Personality Theory and Assessment Summary
1
1.1 Introduction to Psychology
What are the four goals of psychology?
The four goals of psychology are the description, explanation, prediction, and influence of
behaviour and mental processes.
What is the difference between basic and applied research?
Basic research is designed to explore the fundamental aspects of life and to gain new
knowledge without practical goals in mind. Applied research is conducted with the specific goal
of solving practical problems and improving people’s quality of life.
1.2 Descriptive Research Methods
What is naturalistic observation, and what are some of its advantages and limitations?
Naturalistic observation is a research method in which researchers observe and record
behaviour in its natural setting without attempting to influence or control it. The major
advantage of naturalistic observation is that it allows one to study behaviour in normal settings,
where it occurs more naturally and spontaneously. Its main limitation is that it only allows a
researcher to observe behaviours, without the capacity to test why they are happening as they
are.
What is the case study method, and for what purposes is it particularly well suited?
The case study is an in-depth, sometimes long-term study of one or several participants through
observation, interview, and sometimes psychological testing. It is particularly appropriate for
studying people who have rare psychological or physiological disorders.
What are the methods and purposes of survey research?
The survey is a research method in which investigators use interviews and/or questionnaires to
gather information about the attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviours of a group of
people.
What is a representative sample, and why is it essential in a survey?
A representative sample is a sample of participants selected from the population of interest in
such a way that important subgroups within the whole population are included in the same
proportions in the sample. A sample must be representative for the findings to be applied to
the larger population.
,What is the correlational method, and when is it used?
The correlational method is used to determine the degree of correlation or relationship
between two variables. It is often used when an experimental study cannot be conducted
because it is either impossible or unethical.
What is a correlation coefficient?
A correlation coefficient is a numerical value indicating the degree and direction of the
relationship between two variables.
1.3 The Experimental Method: Searching for Causes
What is the main advantage of the experimental method?
The experimental method is the only research method that can be used to identify cause–effect
relationships.
What is the difference between the independent variable and the dependent variable?
In an experiment, an independent variable is a condition or factor manipulated by the
researcher to determine its effect on the dependent variable. The dependent variable,
measured at the end of the experiment, is presumed to vary as a result of the manipulations of
the independent variable.
How do the experimental and control groups differ?
The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable. The control group is similar to
the experimental group and is exposed to the same experimental environment but is not
exposed to the independent variable.
What is selection bias, and what technique do researchers use to control for it?
Selection bias occurs when there are systematic differences among the groups before the
experiment begins. Random assignment—assignment of participants to groups by means of a
chance procedure—maximizes the probability that groups are similar at the beginning of the
experiment.
What is the placebo effect, and how do researchers control for it?
A placebo effect occurs when the response to a treatment is due to the person’s expectations
rather than to the treatment itself.
What is experimenter bias, and how is it controlled?
Experimenter bias occurs when the researcher’s expectations affect the outcome of the
experiment. It is controlled for by the use of the double-blind technique, in which neither the
experimenters nor the participants knows which participants are in an experimental group and
which are in a control group.
,1.4 Participants in Psychological Research
What are some ethical guidelines governing the use of human participants in research?
Participation in research must be strictly voluntary; there must be respect for confidentiality;
participants must be free to withdraw from the study at any time; and participants must be
debriefed as soon as possible after they participate.
Why are animals used in research?
Animals are used because they provide a simpler model for studying similar processes in
humans; because researchers can exercise more control over animals and use a wider range of
medical and other manipulations; because it is easier to study the entire lifespan (and even
several generations in some species); and because animals are readily available and more
economical to study.
1.5 The Historical Progression of Psychology: Exploring the Different Perspectives
What was Wilhelm Wundt’s contribution to psychology?
Wilhelm Wundt is generally thought of as the founder of psychology. He conducted
experiments in search of the basic elements of the conscious experience.
What were the goals and methods of structuralism, the first school of psychology?
Structuralism’s main goal was to analyze the basic elements, or the structure, of conscious
mental experience through the use of introspection.
What was the goal of the early school of psychology known as functionalism?
Functionalism was concerned with how mental processes help humans and animals adapt to
their environment.
What is the emphasis of Gestalt psychology?
Gestalt psychology emphasizes that individuals perceive objects and patterns as whole units
and that the perceived whole is more than just the sum of its parts.
How did behaviourism differ from previous schools of psychology?
Behaviourism, the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson, views observable,
measurable behaviour as the only appropriate subject matter for psychology. Behaviourism also
emphasizes that behaviour is determined primarily by factors in the environment.
What was the role of the unconscious in psychoanalysis, Freud’s approach to psychology?
According to Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis, our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour are
determined primarily by the unconscious—the part of the mind that we cannot see and cannot
control.
, What is the focus of humanistic psychology?
Humanistic psychology focuses on the uniqueness of human beings and their capacity for
choice, growth, and psychological health.
What is the focus of cognitive psychology?
Cognitive psychology focuses on mental processes such as memory, problem solving, concept
formation, reasoning and decision making, language, and perception.
1.6 Psychology Today
What is the focus of the biological perspective?
The biological perspective emphasizes biological processes and heredity as the keys to
understanding behaviour and thinking.
What is the focus of the evolutionary perspective?
The evolutionary perspective focuses on how humans have evolved and adapted behaviours
required for survival in the face of various environmental pressures over the long course of
evolution.
What is the focus of the sociocultural perspective?
The sociocultural perspective highlights the social and cultural influences on human behaviour.
What are some specialities in psychology, and in what settings are they employed?
Most psychology researchers work in colleges and universities, where they conduct research
and teach. Clinical psychologists are responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of often
complex psychological disorders. Counselling psychologists assist people who are dealing with
psychology-related issues that are less severe. School and educational psychologists provide
psychological services to students in a school setting. Forensic psychologists apply their
knowledge of psychological research to the legal system. Health psychologists work with
patients or conduct research on the relationship between psychological processes and physical
health. Sport psychologists apply psychological principles to help improve the performance of
athletes. Industrial or organizational psychologists help businesses deal with issues such as the
hiring and retention of qualified personnel, employee satisfaction, workplace violence, and
occupational health.
2
2.1 The Neurons and the Neurotransmitters
What is a neuron, and what are its three parts?
A neuron is a specialized cell that conducts messages through the nervous system. Its three
main parts are the cell body, dendrites, and axon.
1
1.1 Introduction to Psychology
What are the four goals of psychology?
The four goals of psychology are the description, explanation, prediction, and influence of
behaviour and mental processes.
What is the difference between basic and applied research?
Basic research is designed to explore the fundamental aspects of life and to gain new
knowledge without practical goals in mind. Applied research is conducted with the specific goal
of solving practical problems and improving people’s quality of life.
1.2 Descriptive Research Methods
What is naturalistic observation, and what are some of its advantages and limitations?
Naturalistic observation is a research method in which researchers observe and record
behaviour in its natural setting without attempting to influence or control it. The major
advantage of naturalistic observation is that it allows one to study behaviour in normal settings,
where it occurs more naturally and spontaneously. Its main limitation is that it only allows a
researcher to observe behaviours, without the capacity to test why they are happening as they
are.
What is the case study method, and for what purposes is it particularly well suited?
The case study is an in-depth, sometimes long-term study of one or several participants through
observation, interview, and sometimes psychological testing. It is particularly appropriate for
studying people who have rare psychological or physiological disorders.
What are the methods and purposes of survey research?
The survey is a research method in which investigators use interviews and/or questionnaires to
gather information about the attitudes, beliefs, experiences, or behaviours of a group of
people.
What is a representative sample, and why is it essential in a survey?
A representative sample is a sample of participants selected from the population of interest in
such a way that important subgroups within the whole population are included in the same
proportions in the sample. A sample must be representative for the findings to be applied to
the larger population.
,What is the correlational method, and when is it used?
The correlational method is used to determine the degree of correlation or relationship
between two variables. It is often used when an experimental study cannot be conducted
because it is either impossible or unethical.
What is a correlation coefficient?
A correlation coefficient is a numerical value indicating the degree and direction of the
relationship between two variables.
1.3 The Experimental Method: Searching for Causes
What is the main advantage of the experimental method?
The experimental method is the only research method that can be used to identify cause–effect
relationships.
What is the difference between the independent variable and the dependent variable?
In an experiment, an independent variable is a condition or factor manipulated by the
researcher to determine its effect on the dependent variable. The dependent variable,
measured at the end of the experiment, is presumed to vary as a result of the manipulations of
the independent variable.
How do the experimental and control groups differ?
The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable. The control group is similar to
the experimental group and is exposed to the same experimental environment but is not
exposed to the independent variable.
What is selection bias, and what technique do researchers use to control for it?
Selection bias occurs when there are systematic differences among the groups before the
experiment begins. Random assignment—assignment of participants to groups by means of a
chance procedure—maximizes the probability that groups are similar at the beginning of the
experiment.
What is the placebo effect, and how do researchers control for it?
A placebo effect occurs when the response to a treatment is due to the person’s expectations
rather than to the treatment itself.
What is experimenter bias, and how is it controlled?
Experimenter bias occurs when the researcher’s expectations affect the outcome of the
experiment. It is controlled for by the use of the double-blind technique, in which neither the
experimenters nor the participants knows which participants are in an experimental group and
which are in a control group.
,1.4 Participants in Psychological Research
What are some ethical guidelines governing the use of human participants in research?
Participation in research must be strictly voluntary; there must be respect for confidentiality;
participants must be free to withdraw from the study at any time; and participants must be
debriefed as soon as possible after they participate.
Why are animals used in research?
Animals are used because they provide a simpler model for studying similar processes in
humans; because researchers can exercise more control over animals and use a wider range of
medical and other manipulations; because it is easier to study the entire lifespan (and even
several generations in some species); and because animals are readily available and more
economical to study.
1.5 The Historical Progression of Psychology: Exploring the Different Perspectives
What was Wilhelm Wundt’s contribution to psychology?
Wilhelm Wundt is generally thought of as the founder of psychology. He conducted
experiments in search of the basic elements of the conscious experience.
What were the goals and methods of structuralism, the first school of psychology?
Structuralism’s main goal was to analyze the basic elements, or the structure, of conscious
mental experience through the use of introspection.
What was the goal of the early school of psychology known as functionalism?
Functionalism was concerned with how mental processes help humans and animals adapt to
their environment.
What is the emphasis of Gestalt psychology?
Gestalt psychology emphasizes that individuals perceive objects and patterns as whole units
and that the perceived whole is more than just the sum of its parts.
How did behaviourism differ from previous schools of psychology?
Behaviourism, the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson, views observable,
measurable behaviour as the only appropriate subject matter for psychology. Behaviourism also
emphasizes that behaviour is determined primarily by factors in the environment.
What was the role of the unconscious in psychoanalysis, Freud’s approach to psychology?
According to Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis, our thoughts, feelings, and behaviour are
determined primarily by the unconscious—the part of the mind that we cannot see and cannot
control.
, What is the focus of humanistic psychology?
Humanistic psychology focuses on the uniqueness of human beings and their capacity for
choice, growth, and psychological health.
What is the focus of cognitive psychology?
Cognitive psychology focuses on mental processes such as memory, problem solving, concept
formation, reasoning and decision making, language, and perception.
1.6 Psychology Today
What is the focus of the biological perspective?
The biological perspective emphasizes biological processes and heredity as the keys to
understanding behaviour and thinking.
What is the focus of the evolutionary perspective?
The evolutionary perspective focuses on how humans have evolved and adapted behaviours
required for survival in the face of various environmental pressures over the long course of
evolution.
What is the focus of the sociocultural perspective?
The sociocultural perspective highlights the social and cultural influences on human behaviour.
What are some specialities in psychology, and in what settings are they employed?
Most psychology researchers work in colleges and universities, where they conduct research
and teach. Clinical psychologists are responsible for the diagnosis and treatment of often
complex psychological disorders. Counselling psychologists assist people who are dealing with
psychology-related issues that are less severe. School and educational psychologists provide
psychological services to students in a school setting. Forensic psychologists apply their
knowledge of psychological research to the legal system. Health psychologists work with
patients or conduct research on the relationship between psychological processes and physical
health. Sport psychologists apply psychological principles to help improve the performance of
athletes. Industrial or organizational psychologists help businesses deal with issues such as the
hiring and retention of qualified personnel, employee satisfaction, workplace violence, and
occupational health.
2
2.1 The Neurons and the Neurotransmitters
What is a neuron, and what are its three parts?
A neuron is a specialized cell that conducts messages through the nervous system. Its three
main parts are the cell body, dendrites, and axon.
