Psychology 243
Notes by: Bianca Spek, 2020
Contents
Chapter 1: Different methods of acquiring knowledge................................................................... 2
Chapter 2: The Scientific Method Applied to Social Reality ......................................................... 7
Chapter 5: Types of Research ....................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 6: Research Questions and Variables .............................................................................. 19
Chapter 10: Research Planning and Design .................................................................................. 26
Chapter 11: Sampling ................................................................................................................... 42
Chapter 13: Ensuring the Quality of Data..................................................................................... 53
Chapter 16: Research Findings and Dissemination ...................................................................... 66
,Chapter 1: Different methods of acquiring knowledge
Defining Basic Terms:
Research: To look again
Social: Humans/People
Sciences: Process of systematic inquiry (gain knowledge) which;
- makes sense (logical),
- has a reference (observed evidence) and gives
- an explanation (theory).
Knowledge
How does society progress?
- Always generating new knowledge
- Formulating specific questions and answering them
- Understanding ourselves and our environment
Epistemology:
- The study of different ways of knowing about the world.
e.g. questions similar to: “What is Knowledge?”
- This includes: Non-scientific and Scientific methods.
Non-Scientific Methods:
1. Method of Authority: relying on the knowledge of prominent people (authority). These
authorities rely on strategies to justify and preserve their position, e.g. using Jargon or
emphasising their position.
e.g. religious leaders, politicians, elders, lecturers etc.
e.g. children gain their knowledge from caregivers.
- CRITQUES: allows individuals to hide the superficial nature of their knowledge;
the underlying ideologies and the weaknesses in their judgement, might hide their
ignorance to keep their position of power.
2. Mystical Method: based on texts or supernatural sources (variation of method of
authority). E.g. traditional healers, gaining knowledge from ancestors (supernatural).
- Both Method of Authority and Mystical Method; lose their influence when better,
alternative explanations are found.
, 3. Intuitive Method: ordinary reasoning through intuition (instinct). E.g. “what ‘feels’ right
for you”, may not be able to explain this ‘feeling’ but they have faith in this ‘feeling’.
This method relies on the individuals personal understanding of the situation; thus,
conclusions may not be replicable.
4. Conventional Wisdom: accepted knowledge about the world (variation of Intuitive
method). Conventional wisdom often holds contradictions, e.g. ‘opposites attract’ and
‘birds of a feather flock together’.
Critiques of non-scientific methods:
- No systematic way to determine which statements are true.
- Usually based on faith or worldviews
In Contrast
Rationalistic and Empirical Methods:
- Don’t grant special abilities to particular people.
- Only differ in the importance given to reasoning and observation.
1. Rationalistic Method
- Human reason and logic: the basis of knowledge is correct reasoning.
- Discovers laws through intellectual processes, only.
- Enables truth via principles; e.g. pure mathematics.
- Used to: develop theories about the world.
2. Empirical Method
- Opposite of rationalistic method.
- Foundation of knowledge: objectively observed facts, in nature.
- Knowledge based on: what our senses observe and perceive.
- Used to: test theories about the world.
- E.g. a piece of wood floats; a piece of iron doesn’t. Often stops here, because
interpretations of the relationships, between the observations, becomes subjective.
, Scientific Method: The Process of Knowing
- Combination of: (1) Rationalistic Method and (2) Empirical Method.
- Rationalism used to develop theories.
- Empiricism used to test theories.
Science – continuous inter play of rational thought and empirical observation
A Priori vs A Posteriori Knowledge
A Priori Knowledge (“from the earlier”) A Posteriori Knowledge (“from the later”)
1. Knowledge that we can have “PRIOR 1. Knowledge we can only have AFTER
to experience”. we have certain experiences.
2. Justification is INDEPENDENT of 2. Justification is DEPENDENT on
experience. experience or empirical evidence.
Quantitative Research:
STEPS:
1. Description of the object, relationship or situation (empirical): required.
2. Explanation of the relationship between the described (1) should be stated (rationalistic). Commented [bs1]: In the form of a Law and is the resul
3. Prediction of future events, under well-defined conditions, should be permitted: by the of a reasoning process.
stated explanation (2). Commented [bs2]: In order to enable predictions, the
explanations need to be correct which is evaluated by usin
4. Intelligent Intervention: based on correct explanations leading to the ability to predict the empirical approach (the 5 senses).
events.
Commented [bs3]: Interventions: changes that occur to
improve the situation.
Qualitative Research:
- Concentration on observation and recording of events.
- No A Priori explanations given.
- No expectations or predictions can be tested.
- A Posteriori explanation (at end).
- Some explanations are found at the end because of data collection and analysis.
E.g. Participants in a workout regime
- Quantitative research: the physical, measurable results from the program
- Qualitative research: the attitudes and problems encountered in the program
Notes by: Bianca Spek, 2020
Contents
Chapter 1: Different methods of acquiring knowledge................................................................... 2
Chapter 2: The Scientific Method Applied to Social Reality ......................................................... 7
Chapter 5: Types of Research ....................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 6: Research Questions and Variables .............................................................................. 19
Chapter 10: Research Planning and Design .................................................................................. 26
Chapter 11: Sampling ................................................................................................................... 42
Chapter 13: Ensuring the Quality of Data..................................................................................... 53
Chapter 16: Research Findings and Dissemination ...................................................................... 66
,Chapter 1: Different methods of acquiring knowledge
Defining Basic Terms:
Research: To look again
Social: Humans/People
Sciences: Process of systematic inquiry (gain knowledge) which;
- makes sense (logical),
- has a reference (observed evidence) and gives
- an explanation (theory).
Knowledge
How does society progress?
- Always generating new knowledge
- Formulating specific questions and answering them
- Understanding ourselves and our environment
Epistemology:
- The study of different ways of knowing about the world.
e.g. questions similar to: “What is Knowledge?”
- This includes: Non-scientific and Scientific methods.
Non-Scientific Methods:
1. Method of Authority: relying on the knowledge of prominent people (authority). These
authorities rely on strategies to justify and preserve their position, e.g. using Jargon or
emphasising their position.
e.g. religious leaders, politicians, elders, lecturers etc.
e.g. children gain their knowledge from caregivers.
- CRITQUES: allows individuals to hide the superficial nature of their knowledge;
the underlying ideologies and the weaknesses in their judgement, might hide their
ignorance to keep their position of power.
2. Mystical Method: based on texts or supernatural sources (variation of method of
authority). E.g. traditional healers, gaining knowledge from ancestors (supernatural).
- Both Method of Authority and Mystical Method; lose their influence when better,
alternative explanations are found.
, 3. Intuitive Method: ordinary reasoning through intuition (instinct). E.g. “what ‘feels’ right
for you”, may not be able to explain this ‘feeling’ but they have faith in this ‘feeling’.
This method relies on the individuals personal understanding of the situation; thus,
conclusions may not be replicable.
4. Conventional Wisdom: accepted knowledge about the world (variation of Intuitive
method). Conventional wisdom often holds contradictions, e.g. ‘opposites attract’ and
‘birds of a feather flock together’.
Critiques of non-scientific methods:
- No systematic way to determine which statements are true.
- Usually based on faith or worldviews
In Contrast
Rationalistic and Empirical Methods:
- Don’t grant special abilities to particular people.
- Only differ in the importance given to reasoning and observation.
1. Rationalistic Method
- Human reason and logic: the basis of knowledge is correct reasoning.
- Discovers laws through intellectual processes, only.
- Enables truth via principles; e.g. pure mathematics.
- Used to: develop theories about the world.
2. Empirical Method
- Opposite of rationalistic method.
- Foundation of knowledge: objectively observed facts, in nature.
- Knowledge based on: what our senses observe and perceive.
- Used to: test theories about the world.
- E.g. a piece of wood floats; a piece of iron doesn’t. Often stops here, because
interpretations of the relationships, between the observations, becomes subjective.
, Scientific Method: The Process of Knowing
- Combination of: (1) Rationalistic Method and (2) Empirical Method.
- Rationalism used to develop theories.
- Empiricism used to test theories.
Science – continuous inter play of rational thought and empirical observation
A Priori vs A Posteriori Knowledge
A Priori Knowledge (“from the earlier”) A Posteriori Knowledge (“from the later”)
1. Knowledge that we can have “PRIOR 1. Knowledge we can only have AFTER
to experience”. we have certain experiences.
2. Justification is INDEPENDENT of 2. Justification is DEPENDENT on
experience. experience or empirical evidence.
Quantitative Research:
STEPS:
1. Description of the object, relationship or situation (empirical): required.
2. Explanation of the relationship between the described (1) should be stated (rationalistic). Commented [bs1]: In the form of a Law and is the resul
3. Prediction of future events, under well-defined conditions, should be permitted: by the of a reasoning process.
stated explanation (2). Commented [bs2]: In order to enable predictions, the
explanations need to be correct which is evaluated by usin
4. Intelligent Intervention: based on correct explanations leading to the ability to predict the empirical approach (the 5 senses).
events.
Commented [bs3]: Interventions: changes that occur to
improve the situation.
Qualitative Research:
- Concentration on observation and recording of events.
- No A Priori explanations given.
- No expectations or predictions can be tested.
- A Posteriori explanation (at end).
- Some explanations are found at the end because of data collection and analysis.
E.g. Participants in a workout regime
- Quantitative research: the physical, measurable results from the program
- Qualitative research: the attitudes and problems encountered in the program
