Summary Politics of the
Earth Literature Lecture 5-9
Summary Lecture 5 Literature
The Evolution of Dutch
Environmental Policy: The
Changing Ecological Arena
from 1970–2000 and Beyond
by G. Keijzers (2000)
Introduction
Environmental policy in the Netherlands has expanded from a focus on human health and
ecosystems to ensuring a sustainable supply of natural resources.
Three phases in the evolution of Dutch environmental policy
Shaping the ecological arena: 1970-1983
New legislation was created to manage numerous aspects of the physical environment and it
enhanced environmental policies and issues in the public eye. Air and water pollution as well as soil
contamination were the main issues. The focus was on restoring health care and cleaning up
pollution. The agriculture, industry and transportation were targeted as major polluters. There
became legislation on air, water, soil, waste and noise policies. The legislation and decision-making
was top-down. It contained the following general principles:
1. “The polluter pays principle”: polluters are liable for the costs of clean up and prevention of
pollution
2. “Stand still principle”: polluted areas should not be polluted further and clean areas must
remain clean
3. “Principle of isolation and control”: pollution should be controlled at the site and not be
exported to other areas or regions through underground water leakage or through air;
4. “Principle of priority for pollution abatement at the source” (rather than applying end-of-
pipe solutions)
5. “The use of ‘best-technical-means’ technology” to eliminate emissions by industry when
serious risks to public health were at stake and the use of “best-practical-means” technology
when effects on health are limited
6. “Principle of avoiding unnecessary pollution”
1
,This command and control approach was effective. Though, three problems were encountered:
1. The lack of shared responsibility for the environment
2. The continued shifting of environmental problems from one area to the other
3. The lack of procedural coherence between various environmental laws
Encouraging pollution prevention: 1983–1989
The content and the process of environmental policy implementation was upgraded. The boundaries
of the ecological arena were widened to cover new issues. A two-track system emerged covering the
effects and the sources of environmental issues:
- The track of internal integration involved the switch from reactive to pro-active policy
making. Polluters could now be addressed on all issues simultaneously, thus avoiding the
shifting of pollution from one media to the other.
- The track of external integration initiated stake holder involvement in more open processes
of negotiation. The “source track” identified clusters of more or less homogeneous polluters:
so-called target groups which make environmental issues negotiable.
-
New instruments were adopted, such as environmental care programs for businesses, financial
incentives, environmental liability, and environmental impact assessments. The new approach to
engaging stakeholders and encouraging international negotiations was successful. These problems
were encountered and these lessons were learned:
1. Introducing targets for theme areas and setting time frames to achieve them appeared
strong improvements of environmental policies so far
2. The need to intensify the engagement of stakeholders and local authorities in designing
further environmental policies
3. The necessity of establishing long-term emission reduction profiles incorporating the
polluting effects of potential future production growth (the targets set need to include the
future environmental impact of economic growth)
4. The need to show stakeholders the potential benefits of maintaining environmental stocks
Enhancing eco-efficiency: 1990–1999
It was proved that dramatic emission reductions, recycling levels and minimization of resource use
was necessary, but also possible without endangering continued economic growth in the
Netherlands. The National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP) confirmed the limits of the ecological
arena set down in environmental legislation, defined the boundaries for the future and tried to
reduce the claim of the national economy on international stocks of biodiversity, energy and other
mineral materials. The style of guiding decision-making became gradually more open. The emphasis
shifted from environmental legislation, regulations and permitting to instruments that left more
room for decision making by target groups and negotiated agreements and covenants with major
groups of enterprises, now opened up the possibility for private enterprise to design and time its
own implementation plans. Broadening the instrument mix guided smaller and medium sized
enterprises (SME’s) and consumers. Later, policy-making liberties were granted to local authorities.
Most of the objectives of the NEPP were achieved. Still, problems of air pollution, safety, and noise
related to air traffic seemed hardly controllable. These problems were encountered and these
lessons were learned:
1. Open up the ecological arena to address cross-sectoral interests: the need to fully engage
stakeholders not only in formulating implementation plans, but also in defining
2
, environmental targets, taking account of economic and other interests of stakeholders as
well. Environmental management should not only be about reducing pollution. Instead, it
should be about proper management of natural resource stocks, always seeking an open
discussion and consideration of all interests and risks.
2. Energy related issues remain unresolved. Eco-efficiency aimed at pollution prevention will
not achieve sufficient energy-efficiency levels. Much more is needed. Energy related issues
require the opening up of the ecological arena to the full range of economic and social
concerns in order to prepare for rather expensive transitional measures to achieve
substantial CO2 reductions of present and transitional energy systems and to pave the way
for even more expensive future sustainable energy resources.
3. Resource stock dissipation remains unresolved. Reducing the use of resource stocks,
preserving energy resources, and redressing the ecological footprint of the economy,
demands a variety of policies and poses a major challenge. We will have to deal with widely
differing perceptions and a great many interests. Simply setting objectives to reduce resource
stocks use does not address the valid why and how questions at stake.
4. Major infrastructure development demands cross-sectoral solutions: Schiphol Airport.
Ecological interest should be regarded simultaneously with economic and social interests.
Major issues as controlling the environmental impact of infrastructure development for
airport expansion or for that matter, any other major infrastructure development, cannot be
done from the ecological perspective alone.
In the future, rather than imposing ever tightening ecological objectives on the economy, it is
necessary to move forward in a new way if real reductions in per capita levels of demand for energy
and in claims on resource stocks and biodiversity are to be achieved. Handling the dominant
challenges will demand both changes in social behavior (consumption patterns) and technological
regime shifts.
Intermezzo: economy, technology and the environment
Eco-efficiency levels increased mostly as a result of the deployment of new technologies. To solve
environmental issues, also changes to the nature of economic growth and consumer patterns are
needed. This is because overall energy use moved higher. Economic as well as institutional, social and
cultural barriers stand in the way of the timely introduction of new technology. It is necessary to
establish joint enterprise and government research programs explicitly aiming to introduce new
technologies in order to take away the barriers.
Economic growth theory emphasizes the importance of technology as a driver of economic
development. Still, as environmental policies have caught up, economic growth has continued.
Though, in the future we should keep trying to change the nature of growth, both through
technological change and altered consumer behavior.
Integrating ecological, economic and social challenges: 2000 and beyond
Environmental objectives should be negotiable and brought into equilibrium with other equally
important economic and social welfare objectives. These shared interests in sustainable
management of the physical environment show:
1. The ecological arena: the safety and health of the population and of ecosystems
2. The economic arena: food security and the supply of energy and of raw materials
3. The social arena: equitable welfare conditions
Preservation of the physical environment is key to meeting ecological, economic and social
objectives.
3
Earth Literature Lecture 5-9
Summary Lecture 5 Literature
The Evolution of Dutch
Environmental Policy: The
Changing Ecological Arena
from 1970–2000 and Beyond
by G. Keijzers (2000)
Introduction
Environmental policy in the Netherlands has expanded from a focus on human health and
ecosystems to ensuring a sustainable supply of natural resources.
Three phases in the evolution of Dutch environmental policy
Shaping the ecological arena: 1970-1983
New legislation was created to manage numerous aspects of the physical environment and it
enhanced environmental policies and issues in the public eye. Air and water pollution as well as soil
contamination were the main issues. The focus was on restoring health care and cleaning up
pollution. The agriculture, industry and transportation were targeted as major polluters. There
became legislation on air, water, soil, waste and noise policies. The legislation and decision-making
was top-down. It contained the following general principles:
1. “The polluter pays principle”: polluters are liable for the costs of clean up and prevention of
pollution
2. “Stand still principle”: polluted areas should not be polluted further and clean areas must
remain clean
3. “Principle of isolation and control”: pollution should be controlled at the site and not be
exported to other areas or regions through underground water leakage or through air;
4. “Principle of priority for pollution abatement at the source” (rather than applying end-of-
pipe solutions)
5. “The use of ‘best-technical-means’ technology” to eliminate emissions by industry when
serious risks to public health were at stake and the use of “best-practical-means” technology
when effects on health are limited
6. “Principle of avoiding unnecessary pollution”
1
,This command and control approach was effective. Though, three problems were encountered:
1. The lack of shared responsibility for the environment
2. The continued shifting of environmental problems from one area to the other
3. The lack of procedural coherence between various environmental laws
Encouraging pollution prevention: 1983–1989
The content and the process of environmental policy implementation was upgraded. The boundaries
of the ecological arena were widened to cover new issues. A two-track system emerged covering the
effects and the sources of environmental issues:
- The track of internal integration involved the switch from reactive to pro-active policy
making. Polluters could now be addressed on all issues simultaneously, thus avoiding the
shifting of pollution from one media to the other.
- The track of external integration initiated stake holder involvement in more open processes
of negotiation. The “source track” identified clusters of more or less homogeneous polluters:
so-called target groups which make environmental issues negotiable.
-
New instruments were adopted, such as environmental care programs for businesses, financial
incentives, environmental liability, and environmental impact assessments. The new approach to
engaging stakeholders and encouraging international negotiations was successful. These problems
were encountered and these lessons were learned:
1. Introducing targets for theme areas and setting time frames to achieve them appeared
strong improvements of environmental policies so far
2. The need to intensify the engagement of stakeholders and local authorities in designing
further environmental policies
3. The necessity of establishing long-term emission reduction profiles incorporating the
polluting effects of potential future production growth (the targets set need to include the
future environmental impact of economic growth)
4. The need to show stakeholders the potential benefits of maintaining environmental stocks
Enhancing eco-efficiency: 1990–1999
It was proved that dramatic emission reductions, recycling levels and minimization of resource use
was necessary, but also possible without endangering continued economic growth in the
Netherlands. The National Environmental Policy Plan (NEPP) confirmed the limits of the ecological
arena set down in environmental legislation, defined the boundaries for the future and tried to
reduce the claim of the national economy on international stocks of biodiversity, energy and other
mineral materials. The style of guiding decision-making became gradually more open. The emphasis
shifted from environmental legislation, regulations and permitting to instruments that left more
room for decision making by target groups and negotiated agreements and covenants with major
groups of enterprises, now opened up the possibility for private enterprise to design and time its
own implementation plans. Broadening the instrument mix guided smaller and medium sized
enterprises (SME’s) and consumers. Later, policy-making liberties were granted to local authorities.
Most of the objectives of the NEPP were achieved. Still, problems of air pollution, safety, and noise
related to air traffic seemed hardly controllable. These problems were encountered and these
lessons were learned:
1. Open up the ecological arena to address cross-sectoral interests: the need to fully engage
stakeholders not only in formulating implementation plans, but also in defining
2
, environmental targets, taking account of economic and other interests of stakeholders as
well. Environmental management should not only be about reducing pollution. Instead, it
should be about proper management of natural resource stocks, always seeking an open
discussion and consideration of all interests and risks.
2. Energy related issues remain unresolved. Eco-efficiency aimed at pollution prevention will
not achieve sufficient energy-efficiency levels. Much more is needed. Energy related issues
require the opening up of the ecological arena to the full range of economic and social
concerns in order to prepare for rather expensive transitional measures to achieve
substantial CO2 reductions of present and transitional energy systems and to pave the way
for even more expensive future sustainable energy resources.
3. Resource stock dissipation remains unresolved. Reducing the use of resource stocks,
preserving energy resources, and redressing the ecological footprint of the economy,
demands a variety of policies and poses a major challenge. We will have to deal with widely
differing perceptions and a great many interests. Simply setting objectives to reduce resource
stocks use does not address the valid why and how questions at stake.
4. Major infrastructure development demands cross-sectoral solutions: Schiphol Airport.
Ecological interest should be regarded simultaneously with economic and social interests.
Major issues as controlling the environmental impact of infrastructure development for
airport expansion or for that matter, any other major infrastructure development, cannot be
done from the ecological perspective alone.
In the future, rather than imposing ever tightening ecological objectives on the economy, it is
necessary to move forward in a new way if real reductions in per capita levels of demand for energy
and in claims on resource stocks and biodiversity are to be achieved. Handling the dominant
challenges will demand both changes in social behavior (consumption patterns) and technological
regime shifts.
Intermezzo: economy, technology and the environment
Eco-efficiency levels increased mostly as a result of the deployment of new technologies. To solve
environmental issues, also changes to the nature of economic growth and consumer patterns are
needed. This is because overall energy use moved higher. Economic as well as institutional, social and
cultural barriers stand in the way of the timely introduction of new technology. It is necessary to
establish joint enterprise and government research programs explicitly aiming to introduce new
technologies in order to take away the barriers.
Economic growth theory emphasizes the importance of technology as a driver of economic
development. Still, as environmental policies have caught up, economic growth has continued.
Though, in the future we should keep trying to change the nature of growth, both through
technological change and altered consumer behavior.
Integrating ecological, economic and social challenges: 2000 and beyond
Environmental objectives should be negotiable and brought into equilibrium with other equally
important economic and social welfare objectives. These shared interests in sustainable
management of the physical environment show:
1. The ecological arena: the safety and health of the population and of ecosystems
2. The economic arena: food security and the supply of energy and of raw materials
3. The social arena: equitable welfare conditions
Preservation of the physical environment is key to meeting ecological, economic and social
objectives.
3
