CST Notes.
CTS Book notes. Introduction.
There are three recurring themes- Knowledge, Structure and action (agency) and Modernity.
- Knowledge.
Two central dimensions- Ontology and epistemology.
Ontology dimensions- claims that a particulary theory makes involve the assumptions it holds
about what the real world is like, what is in it and what makes it up.
Ontological position.Social structuralism- claims that the primary elements of the human social
world are socal structures. These are “real” and have a strong influence on how individual
persons think and act. Structuralism presents structures as the basic and most fundamental
aspects of human social life.
Ontological position. Individualism- the “real” things in human life are individual people. From
this viewpoint social structures either do not exist or are merely the products of individuals
acting and interacting in certain ways.
The ontology of a particular theory involves its central assumptions about what is “real” and
therefore what should be the focus of study.
Epistemology dimension - how the theory intends to study to study what it thinks of as the “real
world”.
A particular division between different types of social theory involves what they want to model
their “epistemology” on. The means by which we should understand social life is by interpreting
the meanings to be found in the heads of the individuals as they go about acting and interacting
with each other.
Epistemological position- positivism- social theory and social sciences should be modelled on
the natural sciences, which search for general laws, which collect facts, stats.
Epistemology of a theory is intimately connected to its ontology, one leading the other.
Epistemology of positivism- the claim that there are facts “out there” to be captured, and they
exist “outside” of any particular persons consciousness.
The epistemology of interpretivism inviolves a different ontology, the most important things in the
world are the meanings to be found in peoples heads, which are shaped by particular cultural
system or forms.
- Structure and action. (agency).
Views on the relative importance of social structure or individuals action.
Some theories put more emphasis on the power of individuals to shape their own lives, while
others put far more emphasis on the capacity of social structures to in fluence what people do.
Subjectivity- the ways in which a persons mind is shaped by social and cultural factors.
Identity- the ways in which a persons thinks about themselves and their place in the world.
, - Modernity.
What they say about contemporary society, how it developed, what is is made up of, how it
operates and how it is changing.
Uses the term Modernity to describe what is central.
Refers to the kind of society which arose from about the 16th century onwards in Western
Europe. Replaced medieval feudalism.
A major part of social theory over the last thirty years has involved trying to determine what this
“new modernity” looks like and what it should be called.
Terms: post-modernity, late modernity, risk society, the network society, and globalized
modernity.
BOOK. Chapter 01, Classical Paradigms.
Explore the origins and continued relevance of classical social theory. It distinguishes between
“classical” and “modern” theory, showing how classical ideas still inform modern thought, even if
often unconsciously.
What makes a Theory classical?
The label “classical” was applied retrospectively. Classical theorists like Marx addressed
problems of their time, not timeless truths. The interpretation of classical theorists evolved over
time and differs by context and who holds the power to define them.
Modern Theory’s debt to the classics.
Modern theories are often recombinations of classical ideas.
Talcott Parsons, “the structure of social action, 1937”. Helped codify the classical canon.
There’s no consensus on who counts as “classical”, and the canon is always being
reinterpreted.
Foundational Thinkers: Kant and Hegel.
Kant proposed a dual world of noumena, “things-in-themselves” and phenomena “as
perceived”. He argued that perceptions are shaped by the mind, a foundation for later social
constructivism.
Hegel introduced dialectics, “conflict and transformation,” and alienation, both central to Marx’s
theory of historical materialism and modern social theory.
Alienation and modernity.
Classical theorists viewed modern society as alienating, replacing community and creativity with
bureaucracy, impersonality, and capitalist exploitation. Marx, Weber, and Simmel.
Romanticism vs. Enlightenment Thought
Enlightenment- focused on reason, science, and progress. Durkheim.
Romanticism emphasized culture, uniqueness, and subjectivity. Weber.
This division influenced methodological debates: positivism “objective laws” vs. interpretivism
“subjective meanings”.
,Materialism vs. Idealism.
Marx emphasized material “economic” conditions shaping consciousness.
Weber highlighted how ideas and values, “idealism” also shape material realities.
Nietzsche’s critique of truth and power influences later thinkers like Foucault.
Lecture 01.
What is Theory?
A tentative answer to “why?” questions.
A system of ideas to explain reality.
Derived from observation, common sense, or social context.
They must be testable and coherent.
The logic of Theory and empirical research
1. Formulate theory.
2. Derive hypothesis.
3. Test data.
4. Corroborate or refute.
Good theories are coherent, explain much with little words, teastable and empirically supported.
The 4 main paradigmatas in sociology.
1(Structural) Functionalist paradigm - social phenomena must be explained by their function
for society. Society as a system of functions.
2Conflict paradigm-social phenomena must be explained as the results of conflicts between
groups in society. Power struggles between groups.
3Symbolic interactionistic paradigm- social phenomena must be explained as the
(unintended) consequences of rational decisions by individuals. Meaning-making in interaction.
4Rational choice paradigm- social phenomena must be explained as the results of the
interaction between individuals through symbols and meaning. Individuals make rational
decisions.
Problems with paradigmata.
Sociology is a part of society, and so is the sociologist affecting the view on society.
There is no complete or overarching picture of theory on how society works. There ate “partial
perspectives”.
Three ways of using theory.
1. Paradigm- shapes research design.
2. Lens- helps interpret phenomena.
3. Outcome- emerges from research.
, Theoretical tradition ”paradigm”- is a broader framework, a family of theories that share core
assumptions. General perspective.
Theory- aims to explain a particular social issue.
Many theories blend ideas from different traditions.
Key Paradigm Questions
Ontology– philosophical assumption about what constitutes social reality.What exists?
What do we believe exists?
- Fundamental beliefs that someone holds about the nature of the social world and its
relationship to individual social actors.
- Social reality exists independent of the observer.
- Social reality is constructed by people in particular social, cultural and historical contexts.
Epistemology– What we accept as valid evidence of that reality. What counts as valid
knowledge?
What constitutes reliable and valid knowledge?
- Casual relationships between observable phenomena.
- Interpretations of meaning.
Methodology– The means by which we investigate that context. How do we study it?
How we produce reliable and valid knowledge?
- What “strategies of inquiry” are appropriate to our ontological/epistemological position.
- Descriptive/conformatory – explanatory/exploratory.
Methods– The means by which we gather evidence. What tools do we use?
How can we collect data to test our theories or describe social phenomena?
- What data collection approaches/tools are appropriate to the methodology.
Agency- individual action, creativity. Structure- social systems, reproduction.
Contemporary sociology tries to bridge both.
Ordering the theoretical traditions.
CTS Book notes. Introduction.
There are three recurring themes- Knowledge, Structure and action (agency) and Modernity.
- Knowledge.
Two central dimensions- Ontology and epistemology.
Ontology dimensions- claims that a particulary theory makes involve the assumptions it holds
about what the real world is like, what is in it and what makes it up.
Ontological position.Social structuralism- claims that the primary elements of the human social
world are socal structures. These are “real” and have a strong influence on how individual
persons think and act. Structuralism presents structures as the basic and most fundamental
aspects of human social life.
Ontological position. Individualism- the “real” things in human life are individual people. From
this viewpoint social structures either do not exist or are merely the products of individuals
acting and interacting in certain ways.
The ontology of a particular theory involves its central assumptions about what is “real” and
therefore what should be the focus of study.
Epistemology dimension - how the theory intends to study to study what it thinks of as the “real
world”.
A particular division between different types of social theory involves what they want to model
their “epistemology” on. The means by which we should understand social life is by interpreting
the meanings to be found in the heads of the individuals as they go about acting and interacting
with each other.
Epistemological position- positivism- social theory and social sciences should be modelled on
the natural sciences, which search for general laws, which collect facts, stats.
Epistemology of a theory is intimately connected to its ontology, one leading the other.
Epistemology of positivism- the claim that there are facts “out there” to be captured, and they
exist “outside” of any particular persons consciousness.
The epistemology of interpretivism inviolves a different ontology, the most important things in the
world are the meanings to be found in peoples heads, which are shaped by particular cultural
system or forms.
- Structure and action. (agency).
Views on the relative importance of social structure or individuals action.
Some theories put more emphasis on the power of individuals to shape their own lives, while
others put far more emphasis on the capacity of social structures to in fluence what people do.
Subjectivity- the ways in which a persons mind is shaped by social and cultural factors.
Identity- the ways in which a persons thinks about themselves and their place in the world.
, - Modernity.
What they say about contemporary society, how it developed, what is is made up of, how it
operates and how it is changing.
Uses the term Modernity to describe what is central.
Refers to the kind of society which arose from about the 16th century onwards in Western
Europe. Replaced medieval feudalism.
A major part of social theory over the last thirty years has involved trying to determine what this
“new modernity” looks like and what it should be called.
Terms: post-modernity, late modernity, risk society, the network society, and globalized
modernity.
BOOK. Chapter 01, Classical Paradigms.
Explore the origins and continued relevance of classical social theory. It distinguishes between
“classical” and “modern” theory, showing how classical ideas still inform modern thought, even if
often unconsciously.
What makes a Theory classical?
The label “classical” was applied retrospectively. Classical theorists like Marx addressed
problems of their time, not timeless truths. The interpretation of classical theorists evolved over
time and differs by context and who holds the power to define them.
Modern Theory’s debt to the classics.
Modern theories are often recombinations of classical ideas.
Talcott Parsons, “the structure of social action, 1937”. Helped codify the classical canon.
There’s no consensus on who counts as “classical”, and the canon is always being
reinterpreted.
Foundational Thinkers: Kant and Hegel.
Kant proposed a dual world of noumena, “things-in-themselves” and phenomena “as
perceived”. He argued that perceptions are shaped by the mind, a foundation for later social
constructivism.
Hegel introduced dialectics, “conflict and transformation,” and alienation, both central to Marx’s
theory of historical materialism and modern social theory.
Alienation and modernity.
Classical theorists viewed modern society as alienating, replacing community and creativity with
bureaucracy, impersonality, and capitalist exploitation. Marx, Weber, and Simmel.
Romanticism vs. Enlightenment Thought
Enlightenment- focused on reason, science, and progress. Durkheim.
Romanticism emphasized culture, uniqueness, and subjectivity. Weber.
This division influenced methodological debates: positivism “objective laws” vs. interpretivism
“subjective meanings”.
,Materialism vs. Idealism.
Marx emphasized material “economic” conditions shaping consciousness.
Weber highlighted how ideas and values, “idealism” also shape material realities.
Nietzsche’s critique of truth and power influences later thinkers like Foucault.
Lecture 01.
What is Theory?
A tentative answer to “why?” questions.
A system of ideas to explain reality.
Derived from observation, common sense, or social context.
They must be testable and coherent.
The logic of Theory and empirical research
1. Formulate theory.
2. Derive hypothesis.
3. Test data.
4. Corroborate or refute.
Good theories are coherent, explain much with little words, teastable and empirically supported.
The 4 main paradigmatas in sociology.
1(Structural) Functionalist paradigm - social phenomena must be explained by their function
for society. Society as a system of functions.
2Conflict paradigm-social phenomena must be explained as the results of conflicts between
groups in society. Power struggles between groups.
3Symbolic interactionistic paradigm- social phenomena must be explained as the
(unintended) consequences of rational decisions by individuals. Meaning-making in interaction.
4Rational choice paradigm- social phenomena must be explained as the results of the
interaction between individuals through symbols and meaning. Individuals make rational
decisions.
Problems with paradigmata.
Sociology is a part of society, and so is the sociologist affecting the view on society.
There is no complete or overarching picture of theory on how society works. There ate “partial
perspectives”.
Three ways of using theory.
1. Paradigm- shapes research design.
2. Lens- helps interpret phenomena.
3. Outcome- emerges from research.
, Theoretical tradition ”paradigm”- is a broader framework, a family of theories that share core
assumptions. General perspective.
Theory- aims to explain a particular social issue.
Many theories blend ideas from different traditions.
Key Paradigm Questions
Ontology– philosophical assumption about what constitutes social reality.What exists?
What do we believe exists?
- Fundamental beliefs that someone holds about the nature of the social world and its
relationship to individual social actors.
- Social reality exists independent of the observer.
- Social reality is constructed by people in particular social, cultural and historical contexts.
Epistemology– What we accept as valid evidence of that reality. What counts as valid
knowledge?
What constitutes reliable and valid knowledge?
- Casual relationships between observable phenomena.
- Interpretations of meaning.
Methodology– The means by which we investigate that context. How do we study it?
How we produce reliable and valid knowledge?
- What “strategies of inquiry” are appropriate to our ontological/epistemological position.
- Descriptive/conformatory – explanatory/exploratory.
Methods– The means by which we gather evidence. What tools do we use?
How can we collect data to test our theories or describe social phenomena?
- What data collection approaches/tools are appropriate to the methodology.
Agency- individual action, creativity. Structure- social systems, reproduction.
Contemporary sociology tries to bridge both.
Ordering the theoretical traditions.
