Q1) Discuss research into infant-caregiver interactions (16 marks)
Interactions between caregivers and infants provide an insight into the type and nature of
attachment. Two features of caregiver-infant interaction are interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
Interactional synchrony is when the caregiver, usually the mother, and the infant reflect both the
actions and emotions of the other in a co-ordinate/synchronised way. Meltzoff and Moore (1977)
observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony in two-week-old infants. An adult displayed
various facial expressions and distinctive hand gestures. The child’s response was filmed and
identified by independent observers. An association was found between the expression or gesture the
adult had displayed and the actions of the babies.
Reciprocity is a two-way interaction between the caregiver and infant. This interaction produces a
response from each other. For example, when an infant smiles, it triggers a smile on the caregiver,
and vice versa. Reciprocity influences the child’s physical, social, and cognitive development. It
becomes the basis for development of basic trust or mistrust, and shapes how the child will relate to
the world, learn, and form relationships throughout life. Jaffe et al. said that from birth, babies move
in a rhythm when interacting with an adult almost as if they were taking turns as people do when
having a conversation.
One limitation of research into caregiver-interactions is the questionable reliability of testing
children. This is because it is hard to know what is happening when observing infants. For example,
infants move their mouths and wave their arms constantly. This is an issue for researchers
investigating intentional behaviour because it is difficult to be certain if the imitation of the
caregiver’s actions is conscious and deliberate. Therefore, we cannot be certain that the infants were
engaging in interactional synchrony or reciprocity, as some of the behaviour may have occurred by
chance. This questions the validity of research in relation to reciprocity and interactional synchrony.
Psychologists should be cautious when interpreting the findings from research in this area.
As well as this, there are methodological flaws with studying interactional synchrony using
observations methods. There is a possibility of observer bias. This is when the researcher consciously
or unconsciously interpret behaviour to support their findings and verify their hypothesis. To
overcome this, more than one observers should be used to examine interactional synchrony between
caregivers and infants. Research by Koepke et al failed to replicate the findings of Meltzoff and
Moore. This suggests that the results yielded by Meltzoff and Moore lack reliability.
Psychologists suggest that caregiver-infant interactions, such as reciprocity, are present from birth
and therefore are the product of nature in order to help infants form and maintain an attachment.
However, such innate behaviours do not act in isolation and interact with the environment, such as
the caregivers, to prompt a response like attention. As a result, researchers should consider the
interaction of innate infant behaviours with the environment to fully appreciate and understand the
complex nature of caregiver-infant interactions.
Q2) Discuss the role of father in the development of attachment (16 marks)
Traditionally, the role of father in attachment would be limited because fathers would go to work in
order to provide for their family. However, due to the shift towards a more postmodern society which
is characterised by gender fluidity, the traditional conjugal roles within the family are no longer as
clear-cut. This results in the role of father changing to fit within postmodern society. However,
psychologists disagree over the exact role of the father. Some argue that men are not equipped to
, form an attachment due to their lack of oestrogen, which is associated with the caring nature in
women. Others argue that fathers do not take on a caregiver role, instead they act as a playmate.
Finally, some psychologists argue that fathers can demonstrate sensitive responsiveness and react to
the needs of their children. Thus, can form a strong emotional bond.
Research conducted by Geiger provides support for the role of father as a playmate. They found that
fathers’ play interactions were more exciting than mothers’ play interactions. However, the mothers’
interactions were more affectionate and nurturing. This suggests that the role of father is as a
playmate and not as a sensitive parent who responds to the needs of their children. This also confirm
that the mother takes on a more nurturing role. This idea is further supported by Grossman who
carried out a longitudinal study into parents’ behaviour and its effects on the quality of children’s
attachment into their teens. He found that the quality of infant attachment with mothers but not
fathers was related to children’s attachments in adolescence, suggesting that father attachment was
less important. However, the quality of fathers’ play with infants was related to the quality of
adolescent attachments. This suggests that fathers have a different role in attachment – one that is
more to do with play and stimulation, and less to do with nurturing.
Research conducted by Field suggests that when fathers do take on the role of being the main
caregiver, they adopt behaviours associated with mothers. Field filmed 4-month-old babies in face-
to-face interactions with their primary-caregiver mothers, secondary-caregiver fathers, and primary-
caregiver fathers. She found that PCG fathers and mothers spent more time smiling, imitating, and
holding infants than the SCG fathers. This behaviour appears to be important in building an
attachment with the infant. This can be used to help explain why some male same-sex couples
perform heteronormative behaviour when adopting a child.
Research conducted by Belsky et al suggests that fathers are able to form secure attachments with
their children if they are in an intimate or close marriage. They found that males who reported higher
levels of marital intimacy also displayed a secure father–infant attachment, whereas males with
lower levels of marital intimacy displayed insecure father–infant attachments. This suggests that
males can form secure attachments with their children. However, the strength of this attachment
depends on the parents’ relationship. Therefore, while fathers may be biologically determined to
form a different relationship with their children, this relationship is mediated by their environment,
such as the intimacy of their parents’ marriage. This suggests that while a father’s role may be
determined, it is only determined to an extent and therefore a softer view of determinism is more
appropriate.
Q3) Discuss animal studies of attachment (16 marks)
Lorenz studied imprinting in goslings. In this study, Lorenz randomly divided a set of goose eggs into
two groups: a control group and an experimental group. The control group were hatched in the
natural environment with their mother present whereas the experimental group were hatched in an
incubator with Lorenz present. The goslings imprinted on the first moving thing they saw. From this
Lorenz concluded that bird species that are mobile from birth (like geese and ducks) attach to and
follow the first moving object they see. Lorenz identified a critical period of 4-25 hours in which
imprinting needs to take place.
Harlow studied monkeys to see if food was the primary driver for attachment. In a controlled
environment, infant monkeys reared with two surrogate mothers. One was a plain wire mother that
dispensed milk and the other was a cloth-covered mother with no milk. The time spent with each
mother was recorded. Harlow found that most monkeys spent time with the cloth-covered mother
Interactions between caregivers and infants provide an insight into the type and nature of
attachment. Two features of caregiver-infant interaction are interactional synchrony and reciprocity.
Interactional synchrony is when the caregiver, usually the mother, and the infant reflect both the
actions and emotions of the other in a co-ordinate/synchronised way. Meltzoff and Moore (1977)
observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony in two-week-old infants. An adult displayed
various facial expressions and distinctive hand gestures. The child’s response was filmed and
identified by independent observers. An association was found between the expression or gesture the
adult had displayed and the actions of the babies.
Reciprocity is a two-way interaction between the caregiver and infant. This interaction produces a
response from each other. For example, when an infant smiles, it triggers a smile on the caregiver,
and vice versa. Reciprocity influences the child’s physical, social, and cognitive development. It
becomes the basis for development of basic trust or mistrust, and shapes how the child will relate to
the world, learn, and form relationships throughout life. Jaffe et al. said that from birth, babies move
in a rhythm when interacting with an adult almost as if they were taking turns as people do when
having a conversation.
One limitation of research into caregiver-interactions is the questionable reliability of testing
children. This is because it is hard to know what is happening when observing infants. For example,
infants move their mouths and wave their arms constantly. This is an issue for researchers
investigating intentional behaviour because it is difficult to be certain if the imitation of the
caregiver’s actions is conscious and deliberate. Therefore, we cannot be certain that the infants were
engaging in interactional synchrony or reciprocity, as some of the behaviour may have occurred by
chance. This questions the validity of research in relation to reciprocity and interactional synchrony.
Psychologists should be cautious when interpreting the findings from research in this area.
As well as this, there are methodological flaws with studying interactional synchrony using
observations methods. There is a possibility of observer bias. This is when the researcher consciously
or unconsciously interpret behaviour to support their findings and verify their hypothesis. To
overcome this, more than one observers should be used to examine interactional synchrony between
caregivers and infants. Research by Koepke et al failed to replicate the findings of Meltzoff and
Moore. This suggests that the results yielded by Meltzoff and Moore lack reliability.
Psychologists suggest that caregiver-infant interactions, such as reciprocity, are present from birth
and therefore are the product of nature in order to help infants form and maintain an attachment.
However, such innate behaviours do not act in isolation and interact with the environment, such as
the caregivers, to prompt a response like attention. As a result, researchers should consider the
interaction of innate infant behaviours with the environment to fully appreciate and understand the
complex nature of caregiver-infant interactions.
Q2) Discuss the role of father in the development of attachment (16 marks)
Traditionally, the role of father in attachment would be limited because fathers would go to work in
order to provide for their family. However, due to the shift towards a more postmodern society which
is characterised by gender fluidity, the traditional conjugal roles within the family are no longer as
clear-cut. This results in the role of father changing to fit within postmodern society. However,
psychologists disagree over the exact role of the father. Some argue that men are not equipped to
, form an attachment due to their lack of oestrogen, which is associated with the caring nature in
women. Others argue that fathers do not take on a caregiver role, instead they act as a playmate.
Finally, some psychologists argue that fathers can demonstrate sensitive responsiveness and react to
the needs of their children. Thus, can form a strong emotional bond.
Research conducted by Geiger provides support for the role of father as a playmate. They found that
fathers’ play interactions were more exciting than mothers’ play interactions. However, the mothers’
interactions were more affectionate and nurturing. This suggests that the role of father is as a
playmate and not as a sensitive parent who responds to the needs of their children. This also confirm
that the mother takes on a more nurturing role. This idea is further supported by Grossman who
carried out a longitudinal study into parents’ behaviour and its effects on the quality of children’s
attachment into their teens. He found that the quality of infant attachment with mothers but not
fathers was related to children’s attachments in adolescence, suggesting that father attachment was
less important. However, the quality of fathers’ play with infants was related to the quality of
adolescent attachments. This suggests that fathers have a different role in attachment – one that is
more to do with play and stimulation, and less to do with nurturing.
Research conducted by Field suggests that when fathers do take on the role of being the main
caregiver, they adopt behaviours associated with mothers. Field filmed 4-month-old babies in face-
to-face interactions with their primary-caregiver mothers, secondary-caregiver fathers, and primary-
caregiver fathers. She found that PCG fathers and mothers spent more time smiling, imitating, and
holding infants than the SCG fathers. This behaviour appears to be important in building an
attachment with the infant. This can be used to help explain why some male same-sex couples
perform heteronormative behaviour when adopting a child.
Research conducted by Belsky et al suggests that fathers are able to form secure attachments with
their children if they are in an intimate or close marriage. They found that males who reported higher
levels of marital intimacy also displayed a secure father–infant attachment, whereas males with
lower levels of marital intimacy displayed insecure father–infant attachments. This suggests that
males can form secure attachments with their children. However, the strength of this attachment
depends on the parents’ relationship. Therefore, while fathers may be biologically determined to
form a different relationship with their children, this relationship is mediated by their environment,
such as the intimacy of their parents’ marriage. This suggests that while a father’s role may be
determined, it is only determined to an extent and therefore a softer view of determinism is more
appropriate.
Q3) Discuss animal studies of attachment (16 marks)
Lorenz studied imprinting in goslings. In this study, Lorenz randomly divided a set of goose eggs into
two groups: a control group and an experimental group. The control group were hatched in the
natural environment with their mother present whereas the experimental group were hatched in an
incubator with Lorenz present. The goslings imprinted on the first moving thing they saw. From this
Lorenz concluded that bird species that are mobile from birth (like geese and ducks) attach to and
follow the first moving object they see. Lorenz identified a critical period of 4-25 hours in which
imprinting needs to take place.
Harlow studied monkeys to see if food was the primary driver for attachment. In a controlled
environment, infant monkeys reared with two surrogate mothers. One was a plain wire mother that
dispensed milk and the other was a cloth-covered mother with no milk. The time spent with each
mother was recorded. Harlow found that most monkeys spent time with the cloth-covered mother
