Summary Research Methodology II
Chapter 12: Content Analysis
In the context of communication research, content analysis is often regarded as a quantitative,
systematic and objective technique for describing the manifest content of communications.
Quantitative means we must count occurrences of whatever we are interested in.
Systematic means that we must count all relevant aspects of the sample. We cannot
arbitrarily pick what aspects get analysed.
Objective means that we select units for analysis and categorize them using clearly defined
criteria. It needs to be valid and reliable.
Manifest means tangible and observable.
Advantages of content analysis:
Content analysis is an unobtrusive approach, because you don’t need human participants.
Another strength is its emphasis on systematic sampling, clear definitions of units, and
counting.
Disadvantages of content analysis:
It addresses only questions of content.
The method can only be used for comparisons.
Validity in content analysis can be problematic in term of relating its findings to the external
world. The context of the content needs to be assessed as well.
A basic content analysis in 8 steps:
1. Develop a hypothesis or research question about communication content.
2. Define the content to be analysed.
3. Sample the content/create your corpus.
4. Decide what you are going to code/Select units for coding. There are 5 possible types of
units:
o Physical units: occupy an observable space, length, or size in print media or time in
audio-visual media. Ex. One-minute sequences of recorded interactions.
o Syntactical units: units of language, such as words, sentences, books, or chapters.
o Categorical units: having something in common or belonging to a researched-
defined category. Ex. Teachers, a specific type of cartoon character, an event such as
drinking coffee.
o Propositional units: are entities such as stories, dramas, and basic claims or
assertions. Ex. A cartoon character rejecting an offer of alcohol.
o Thematic units: broad topics within a structure, such as relationships with the boss
or with peers. Identify them by repeated ideas or actions.
5. Develop a coding scheme/establish how you are going to code
6. Assign each occurrence of a unit in the sample to a code in the coding scheme/annotate the
corpus.
7. Count occurrences of the coded units.
8. Report results, patterns of data, and inferences from data.
Sampling frame: the list from which specific samples will be drawn.
Content analysis of human interaction
Interaction analysis: seeks to capture and understand interactions among members of a group and
the different roles that group members play. There are 3 broad categories of group behaviour:
1. Task-oriented individuals: focus on the group’s work
2. Group-oriented individuals: work to ensure that the group remains cohesive
1
, 3. Self-centred individuals: may refuse to participate or may dominate discussions
Content analysis software
Stemming: changing all variations of a word to its basic stem. Example: fish, fishing, fisherman, fisher
can all be stemmed to fish.
Lemmatization: grouping words together based on their basic dictionary definition so that they can
be analysed as a single item. Example: car and automobile both mean vehicle.
Lecture notes week 1
3 methods for communication research:
1. Corpus/content research
2. Experimental research
3. Surveys
Overview corpus/content analysis
Content analysis means counting what can be seen. Using counting and categories for basic analyses
and insights on speech, text, or screen.
(Corpus and content analysis are the same thing)
Definition:
Content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of
the manifest content of communication.
o Objective: validity, reliability, clear unit of analysis
o Systematic: all relevant aspects need to be analysed
o Quantitative: counting instances
o Manifest content: content that is tangible and observable
2
, Lecture notes week 2
4 myths about content analysis
1. It’s easy: Corpus research is as easy or difficult as a survey, experiment, or any other type of
research.
2. It’s any research about the content of messages: Yes, but only if the investigation meets a
particular definition. Qualitative analyse has 4 different types: usually in communication
research rhetorical and discourse analysis are used.
o Rhetorical analysis (words, fragments)
o Narrative analysis (characters, storylines)
o Discourse analysis (words, language, themes)
o Semiotic analysis (deeper layer, meanings)
3. Anyone can do it without special preparation: anyone can do it but only after training and
substantial planning.
4. It has no use outside academia: No, (for example, how do businesses appear in the news?)
Neuendorf’s definition of content analysis
“Content analysis is a summarizing, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the scientific
method (including attention to objectivity-intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity,
generalizability, replicability, and hypothesis testing) and is not limited as to the types of variables
that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented.”
Scientific method:
o It’s objective
o A priori design (before the fact) (decide on what you’re going to do before the study)
o Reliability
o Validity
o Generalizability
o Replicability
o Hypothesis testing
Quantitative: making conclusions based on numerical data
Summarizing: provide a summary of the data and make more general conclusions
Applicable to many contexts (=not limited): any type of content can be used
All message characteristics can be studied: different from Berlenson’s definition, because it
says that you can also analyse the deeper layers of content instead of only the superficial.
Types of corpus research
Descriptive: describe what occurs and how often
Inferential: draw conclusions about sources or receivers based on results that have not been
empirically supported (for example: text writers argue that exclamation marks in
advertisements are persuasive (because they occur often) (dangerous to use)
Psychometric: research on human output and their psychological characteristics. (for
example: people write shorter sentences when they are tense)
Predictive: predict effects based on occurrences (combination of methods needed) (for
example: analyse message characteristics of ads and combine with survey data about readers’
appreciation to predict why one ad is more successful than others)
Corpus research is often done in combination with other types of research: this is called
triangulation.
Corpus analysis – the units section
Units are important for creating and analysing corpus
Unit: component serving as:
A basis on which variables are measured – unit of data collection (Determine content)
3
Chapter 12: Content Analysis
In the context of communication research, content analysis is often regarded as a quantitative,
systematic and objective technique for describing the manifest content of communications.
Quantitative means we must count occurrences of whatever we are interested in.
Systematic means that we must count all relevant aspects of the sample. We cannot
arbitrarily pick what aspects get analysed.
Objective means that we select units for analysis and categorize them using clearly defined
criteria. It needs to be valid and reliable.
Manifest means tangible and observable.
Advantages of content analysis:
Content analysis is an unobtrusive approach, because you don’t need human participants.
Another strength is its emphasis on systematic sampling, clear definitions of units, and
counting.
Disadvantages of content analysis:
It addresses only questions of content.
The method can only be used for comparisons.
Validity in content analysis can be problematic in term of relating its findings to the external
world. The context of the content needs to be assessed as well.
A basic content analysis in 8 steps:
1. Develop a hypothesis or research question about communication content.
2. Define the content to be analysed.
3. Sample the content/create your corpus.
4. Decide what you are going to code/Select units for coding. There are 5 possible types of
units:
o Physical units: occupy an observable space, length, or size in print media or time in
audio-visual media. Ex. One-minute sequences of recorded interactions.
o Syntactical units: units of language, such as words, sentences, books, or chapters.
o Categorical units: having something in common or belonging to a researched-
defined category. Ex. Teachers, a specific type of cartoon character, an event such as
drinking coffee.
o Propositional units: are entities such as stories, dramas, and basic claims or
assertions. Ex. A cartoon character rejecting an offer of alcohol.
o Thematic units: broad topics within a structure, such as relationships with the boss
or with peers. Identify them by repeated ideas or actions.
5. Develop a coding scheme/establish how you are going to code
6. Assign each occurrence of a unit in the sample to a code in the coding scheme/annotate the
corpus.
7. Count occurrences of the coded units.
8. Report results, patterns of data, and inferences from data.
Sampling frame: the list from which specific samples will be drawn.
Content analysis of human interaction
Interaction analysis: seeks to capture and understand interactions among members of a group and
the different roles that group members play. There are 3 broad categories of group behaviour:
1. Task-oriented individuals: focus on the group’s work
2. Group-oriented individuals: work to ensure that the group remains cohesive
1
, 3. Self-centred individuals: may refuse to participate or may dominate discussions
Content analysis software
Stemming: changing all variations of a word to its basic stem. Example: fish, fishing, fisherman, fisher
can all be stemmed to fish.
Lemmatization: grouping words together based on their basic dictionary definition so that they can
be analysed as a single item. Example: car and automobile both mean vehicle.
Lecture notes week 1
3 methods for communication research:
1. Corpus/content research
2. Experimental research
3. Surveys
Overview corpus/content analysis
Content analysis means counting what can be seen. Using counting and categories for basic analyses
and insights on speech, text, or screen.
(Corpus and content analysis are the same thing)
Definition:
Content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative description of
the manifest content of communication.
o Objective: validity, reliability, clear unit of analysis
o Systematic: all relevant aspects need to be analysed
o Quantitative: counting instances
o Manifest content: content that is tangible and observable
2
, Lecture notes week 2
4 myths about content analysis
1. It’s easy: Corpus research is as easy or difficult as a survey, experiment, or any other type of
research.
2. It’s any research about the content of messages: Yes, but only if the investigation meets a
particular definition. Qualitative analyse has 4 different types: usually in communication
research rhetorical and discourse analysis are used.
o Rhetorical analysis (words, fragments)
o Narrative analysis (characters, storylines)
o Discourse analysis (words, language, themes)
o Semiotic analysis (deeper layer, meanings)
3. Anyone can do it without special preparation: anyone can do it but only after training and
substantial planning.
4. It has no use outside academia: No, (for example, how do businesses appear in the news?)
Neuendorf’s definition of content analysis
“Content analysis is a summarizing, quantitative analysis of messages that relies on the scientific
method (including attention to objectivity-intersubjectivity, a priori design, reliability, validity,
generalizability, replicability, and hypothesis testing) and is not limited as to the types of variables
that may be measured or the context in which the messages are created or presented.”
Scientific method:
o It’s objective
o A priori design (before the fact) (decide on what you’re going to do before the study)
o Reliability
o Validity
o Generalizability
o Replicability
o Hypothesis testing
Quantitative: making conclusions based on numerical data
Summarizing: provide a summary of the data and make more general conclusions
Applicable to many contexts (=not limited): any type of content can be used
All message characteristics can be studied: different from Berlenson’s definition, because it
says that you can also analyse the deeper layers of content instead of only the superficial.
Types of corpus research
Descriptive: describe what occurs and how often
Inferential: draw conclusions about sources or receivers based on results that have not been
empirically supported (for example: text writers argue that exclamation marks in
advertisements are persuasive (because they occur often) (dangerous to use)
Psychometric: research on human output and their psychological characteristics. (for
example: people write shorter sentences when they are tense)
Predictive: predict effects based on occurrences (combination of methods needed) (for
example: analyse message characteristics of ads and combine with survey data about readers’
appreciation to predict why one ad is more successful than others)
Corpus research is often done in combination with other types of research: this is called
triangulation.
Corpus analysis – the units section
Units are important for creating and analysing corpus
Unit: component serving as:
A basis on which variables are measured – unit of data collection (Determine content)
3
