IEB Grade 12 History Paper 2 Study Guide
SECTION 1: INDEPENDENT AFRICA
Following World War II, a wave of nationalism swept across Africa, leading to a fight for
freedom from colonial rule. While independence was achieved, new states faced profound
challenges, including poverty, a lack of experience in self-governance, and the need to
develop new economic and political systems. The dominant ideological choices were
capitalism, which emphasized private ownership and free enterprise, and African Socialism,
which focused on shared ownership and communal values rooted in pre-colonial traditions.
Politically, nations navigated between multi-party democracy and the establishment of one-
party states. The entire continent became a new stage for the Cold War, as the USA and
USSR vied for influence, often by backing rival factions in newly independent nations.
Case Study 1: The Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo)
1. Background to Independence
• Belgian Rule: Belgian colonial rule in the Congo was notoriously harsh, characterized
by high taxes, forced labour, and a policy of 'paternalism,' which treated Africans as
children with no political responsibility or representation. Political parties and
independent African newspapers were banned, and while primary education was
available, higher education for Africans was non-existent.
• Path to Independence: After violent protests erupted in 1958, Belgium abruptly
agreed to grant independence within six months (June 1960), anticipating that
inexperienced Congolese politicians would fail, allowing for continued Belgian
influence. This rapid handover left the Congolese unprepared, leading to the
formation of over 120 regionally focused political parties.
2. Political Developments
• Coalition and Conflict: In the 1960 elections, no single party won a majority. Patrice
Lumumba’s Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) formed a coalition government.
Lumumba became Prime Minister, and his rival, Joseph Kasavubu, was appointed
President. Their visions clashed immediately:
o Patrice Lumumba: Advocated for a strong, unified, central government to
forge a national identity.
o Joseph Kasavubu: Favoured a loose federation where regions would have
significant autonomy.
• Secession and Crisis: Immediately after independence, two crucial, mineral-rich
provinces seceded, threatening the new state's unity and economic viability:
o Katanga: Led by Moise Tshombe and backed by Belgian mining interests, this
province accounted for 50% of the Congo's revenue.
o Kasai: This province was backed by the Soviet Union.
• Assassination of Lumumba: After Lumumba sought Soviet aid, President Kasavubu
dismissed him. Army commander Joseph Mobutu, with CIA backing, seized power
and arrested Lumumba. Lumumba was subsequently assassinated in captivity in 1961,
with evidence suggesting the involvement of Mobutu, Tshombe, the American CIA,
and the Belgian government.
, 3. Foreign Involvement and Cold War Influence
• Initial Crisis: Shortly after independence, the army mutinied against its Belgian officers.
Belgium sent troops to protect its nationals and property, which Lumumba viewed as
an attempt to restore colonial control.
• UN and Superpower Intervention: Lumumba appealed to the United Nations (UN) for
help. However, the UN forces were unable to use force against the Katangan
secessionists, partly due to US pressure. Frustrated, Lumumba turned to the USSR for
assistance.
• The US Response: The arrival of Soviet agents and equipment alarmed the USA,
turning the Congo into the first major Cold War battleground in Africa. The US
sponsored Mobutu’s coup and provided substantial aid to his regime, viewing him as
a key ally against Soviet ambitions. Between 1965 and 1988, the US provided
approximately $860 million in financial and military aid to Mobutu.
4. Joseph Mobutu’s Dictatorship (1965–1997)
• Rise to Power: Joseph Mobutu seized full power in a military coup in November 1965,
establishing a one-party state and a brutal dictatorship.
• "Authenticité" and Cult of Personality: Mobutu embarked on a cultural program
called authenticité (authenticity). He renamed the country Zaire, changed his own
name to Mobutu Sese Seko, and forced citizens to adopt African names instead of
Christian ones. A powerful cult of personality developed around him.
• Economic Policies and Corruption: Zaire possessed enormous mineral wealth,
including copper, cobalt, and uranium. Initially, the economy grew with investment
from Western ventures. However, by the mid-1970s, the economy collapsed due to
falling copper prices and rampant corruption. Mobutu became infamous for looting
government funds for personal investments in Europe, a practice known as
kleptocracy.
5. Legacy
• End of an Era: Mobutu's rule was propped up by the West as long as he was a useful
anti-Soviet partner. When the Cold War ended, US support was withdrawn. Mobutu
was overthrown in a civil war in 1997 and died shortly after in exile.
• Enduring Impact: The legacy of this period includes deep-seated political instability,
systemic corruption, the devastation of civil war, and economic ruin despite the
nation's vast natural resources.
Case Study 2: Tanzania
1. Background to Independence
• Colonial Rule: Initially a German colony, the territory became Tanganyika under British
rule after World War I. Britain established a system of 'native authorities,' giving some
administrative preparation for independence.
• Path to Independence: The Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), led by Julius
Nyerere, was formed in 1954 and won democratic elections in 1960. Tanganyika
achieved independence in 1961. After a revolution in Zanzibar in 1963, the two
nations united in April 1964 to form the Republic of Tanzania.
SECTION 1: INDEPENDENT AFRICA
Following World War II, a wave of nationalism swept across Africa, leading to a fight for
freedom from colonial rule. While independence was achieved, new states faced profound
challenges, including poverty, a lack of experience in self-governance, and the need to
develop new economic and political systems. The dominant ideological choices were
capitalism, which emphasized private ownership and free enterprise, and African Socialism,
which focused on shared ownership and communal values rooted in pre-colonial traditions.
Politically, nations navigated between multi-party democracy and the establishment of one-
party states. The entire continent became a new stage for the Cold War, as the USA and
USSR vied for influence, often by backing rival factions in newly independent nations.
Case Study 1: The Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo)
1. Background to Independence
• Belgian Rule: Belgian colonial rule in the Congo was notoriously harsh, characterized
by high taxes, forced labour, and a policy of 'paternalism,' which treated Africans as
children with no political responsibility or representation. Political parties and
independent African newspapers were banned, and while primary education was
available, higher education for Africans was non-existent.
• Path to Independence: After violent protests erupted in 1958, Belgium abruptly
agreed to grant independence within six months (June 1960), anticipating that
inexperienced Congolese politicians would fail, allowing for continued Belgian
influence. This rapid handover left the Congolese unprepared, leading to the
formation of over 120 regionally focused political parties.
2. Political Developments
• Coalition and Conflict: In the 1960 elections, no single party won a majority. Patrice
Lumumba’s Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) formed a coalition government.
Lumumba became Prime Minister, and his rival, Joseph Kasavubu, was appointed
President. Their visions clashed immediately:
o Patrice Lumumba: Advocated for a strong, unified, central government to
forge a national identity.
o Joseph Kasavubu: Favoured a loose federation where regions would have
significant autonomy.
• Secession and Crisis: Immediately after independence, two crucial, mineral-rich
provinces seceded, threatening the new state's unity and economic viability:
o Katanga: Led by Moise Tshombe and backed by Belgian mining interests, this
province accounted for 50% of the Congo's revenue.
o Kasai: This province was backed by the Soviet Union.
• Assassination of Lumumba: After Lumumba sought Soviet aid, President Kasavubu
dismissed him. Army commander Joseph Mobutu, with CIA backing, seized power
and arrested Lumumba. Lumumba was subsequently assassinated in captivity in 1961,
with evidence suggesting the involvement of Mobutu, Tshombe, the American CIA,
and the Belgian government.
, 3. Foreign Involvement and Cold War Influence
• Initial Crisis: Shortly after independence, the army mutinied against its Belgian officers.
Belgium sent troops to protect its nationals and property, which Lumumba viewed as
an attempt to restore colonial control.
• UN and Superpower Intervention: Lumumba appealed to the United Nations (UN) for
help. However, the UN forces were unable to use force against the Katangan
secessionists, partly due to US pressure. Frustrated, Lumumba turned to the USSR for
assistance.
• The US Response: The arrival of Soviet agents and equipment alarmed the USA,
turning the Congo into the first major Cold War battleground in Africa. The US
sponsored Mobutu’s coup and provided substantial aid to his regime, viewing him as
a key ally against Soviet ambitions. Between 1965 and 1988, the US provided
approximately $860 million in financial and military aid to Mobutu.
4. Joseph Mobutu’s Dictatorship (1965–1997)
• Rise to Power: Joseph Mobutu seized full power in a military coup in November 1965,
establishing a one-party state and a brutal dictatorship.
• "Authenticité" and Cult of Personality: Mobutu embarked on a cultural program
called authenticité (authenticity). He renamed the country Zaire, changed his own
name to Mobutu Sese Seko, and forced citizens to adopt African names instead of
Christian ones. A powerful cult of personality developed around him.
• Economic Policies and Corruption: Zaire possessed enormous mineral wealth,
including copper, cobalt, and uranium. Initially, the economy grew with investment
from Western ventures. However, by the mid-1970s, the economy collapsed due to
falling copper prices and rampant corruption. Mobutu became infamous for looting
government funds for personal investments in Europe, a practice known as
kleptocracy.
5. Legacy
• End of an Era: Mobutu's rule was propped up by the West as long as he was a useful
anti-Soviet partner. When the Cold War ended, US support was withdrawn. Mobutu
was overthrown in a civil war in 1997 and died shortly after in exile.
• Enduring Impact: The legacy of this period includes deep-seated political instability,
systemic corruption, the devastation of civil war, and economic ruin despite the
nation's vast natural resources.
Case Study 2: Tanzania
1. Background to Independence
• Colonial Rule: Initially a German colony, the territory became Tanganyika under British
rule after World War I. Britain established a system of 'native authorities,' giving some
administrative preparation for independence.
• Path to Independence: The Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), led by Julius
Nyerere, was formed in 1954 and won democratic elections in 1960. Tanganyika
achieved independence in 1961. After a revolution in Zanzibar in 1963, the two
nations united in April 1964 to form the Republic of Tanzania.
