NU 545 UNIT 2 EXAM QUESTIONS WITH
CORRECT ANSWERS 2026
Review the anatomy of the brain. Which portion is responsible for keeping you awake,
controlling thought, speech, emotions and behavior, maintaining balance and posture? -
CORRECT ANSWER -The reticular formation is a large network of diffuse nuclei that connect the
brainstem to the cortex and control vital reflexes. It is essential for maintaining wakefulness and
is referred to as the reticular activating system. Some nuclei within the reticular formation
support specific motor movements, such as balance and posture (p448). The cerebellum is
responsible for maintaining balance and posture (p452). The prefrontal area is responsible for
the elaboration of thought (pg 449). The Broca speech area is on the inferior frontal gyrus
(Brodmann 44, 45). It is usually on the left hemisphere and is responsible for motor aspects of
speech. Broca Area in the inferior frontal lobe (Brodmann areas 44, 45) is an important center
for speech and language processing. This area, rostral to the inferior edge of the premotor area
(Brodmann area 6). Injury to this area results in difficulty forming or inability to for words
(expressive aphasia or dysphasia). Wernicke (posterior Brodmann 22) and adjacent portions of
the parietal lobe are a sensory speech area, responsible for reception and interpretation of
speech (aphasia/dysphasia). Insula (insular lobe) between hemispheres temporal and frontal
lobes, processes emotional information (pg 450). The basal ganglia nuclei are important for
emotional functions (pg 451). Cerebrum > forebrain/hindbrain
Broca's area = difficulty writing and finding words, See chart 17.10 (p523)
Know the function of the arachnoid villi. - CORRECT ANSWER -The arachnoid villi protrude from
the arachnoid space, through the dura mater, and lie within the blood flow of the venous
sinuses. The villi function as one-way valves directing CSF outflow into the blood but preventing
blood flow into the subarachnoid space. Thus CSF is formed from the blood and, after
circulating throughout the CNS, it returns to the blood. Absorbs CSF (pg 459)
Where is the primary defect in Parkinson's disease and Huntington's? - CORRECT ANSWER -
Extrapyramidal system; controls motor system (involuntary movement) (pg 451). Substantia
nigra (of the midbrain) synthesizes dopamine. The dysfunction of dopamine neurons is
associated with PD and Huntington's
,What is the function of the CSF? Where is it produced? Where is it absorbed? - CORRECT
ANSWER -Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless fluid similar to blood plasma and
interstitial fluid. The intracranial and spinal cord structures float in CSF and are thereby partially
protected from jolts and blows. The buoyant properties of the CSF also prevent the brain from
tugging on meninges, nerve roots, and blood vessels. Appx 600mL is produced daily (457).
Ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses are the structures that produce CSF; they arise from the
pia mater. The arachnoid villi reabsorb the CSF (p458)
Review blood flow to the brain. - CORRECT ANSWER -The brain receives approximately 20% of
the cardiac output, or 800 to 1000 mL of blood flow per minute. Autoregulated to maintain a
stable flow during fluctuating perfusion pressures. Carbon dioxide serves as a primary regulator
for blood flow within the CNS. It is a potent vasodilator in the CNS, and its effects ensure an
adequate blood supply. The brain derives its arterial supply from the internal carotid arteries
(anterior circulation) and the vertebral arteries (posterior circulation) (Fig. 15.20). The internal
carotid arteries supply a proportionately greater amount of blood flow. They originate at the
common carotid arteries, enter the cranium through the base of the skull, and pass through the
cavernous sinus. After entering the skull, these arteries divide into the anterior and middle
cerebral arteries (Fig. 15.21). The vertebral arteries originate at the subclavian arteries and pass
through the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae, entering the cranium through the
foramen magnum. They join at the junction of the pons and medulla oblongata to form the
basilar artery. The basilar artery divides at the level of the midbrain to form paired posterior
cerebral arteries (459). When one of the routes is obstructed, the circle of Willis is an alternate
route.
What is the gate control theory of pain? - CORRECT ANSWER -Gate control theory (GCT)
integrates and builds upon features of the other theories to explain the complex
multidimensional aspects of pain perception and pain modulation. Pain transmission is
modulated by a balance of impulses conducted to the spinal cord where cells in the substantia
gelatinosa function as a "gate." The spinal gate regulates pain transmission to higher centers in
the CNS. Large myelinated A-delta fibers and small unmyelinated C fibers respond to a broad
range of painful stimuli (mechanical, thermal, and chemical). These fibers terminate on
interneurons in the substantia gelatinosa (laminae in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord) and
"open" the spinal gate to transmit the perception of pain. Closure or partial closure of the spinal
gates can occur from nonnociceptive stimulation (i.e., from touch sensors in the skin) carried on
large A-beta fibers decreasing pain perception.
, The theories of pain include the specificity theory, pattern theory, gate control theory, and
neuromatrix theory. 4 Specificity theory proposes that pain and touch are carried on distinct
pathways that project to distinct brain centers. Injury activates only specific pain receptors and
fibers that project to the brain. Intensity of pain is directly related to the amount of associated
tissue injury (i.e., pricking one's finger with a needle would cause minimal pain, whereas cutting
one's hand with a knife would produce more pain). The theory is useful when applied to specific
injuries and the acute pain associated with them. It does not account for chronic pain or
cognitive and emotional elements that contribute to more complex types of pain. 5
Know the type of nerve fibers that transmit pain impulses. Page 470 - CORRECT ANSWER -
Transduction begins when nociceptors are activated by a painful stimulus causing ion channels
to open, creating electrical impulses that travel through axons or two primary types. Pain
impulses are conducted along the A-delta and C fibers of nociceptors.
A-delta fibers: larger myelinated fibers that rapidly transmit sharp, well-localized "fast"
sensations (intense heat or pinprick) "reflex"
· stimulated by mechanoreceptors and mechanothermal nociceptors
· Responsible for causing reflex withdrawal of the body from the painful stimulus
C Fibers: most numerous, smaller, unmyelinated, slowly transmit dull, aching, burning
sensations that are poorly localize and constant
· Stimulated by mechanical, thermal, and chemical nociceptors
A-beta fibers: NOT responsible to transmit pain, but play a role in pain modulation. Large,
myelinated fibers that transmit touch & vibration (p475)
Where in the CNS does pain perception occur? - CORRECT ANSWER -Pain perception occurs
primarily in the reticular and limbic systems and the cerebral cortex (p476)
It is the conscious awareness of pain; requires the interaction of three systems:
1. Sensory-discriminative system
Mediated by: the somatosensory cortex
Responsibility: identifying the presence, character, location and intensity of pain
2. Affective-motivational system
CORRECT ANSWERS 2026
Review the anatomy of the brain. Which portion is responsible for keeping you awake,
controlling thought, speech, emotions and behavior, maintaining balance and posture? -
CORRECT ANSWER -The reticular formation is a large network of diffuse nuclei that connect the
brainstem to the cortex and control vital reflexes. It is essential for maintaining wakefulness and
is referred to as the reticular activating system. Some nuclei within the reticular formation
support specific motor movements, such as balance and posture (p448). The cerebellum is
responsible for maintaining balance and posture (p452). The prefrontal area is responsible for
the elaboration of thought (pg 449). The Broca speech area is on the inferior frontal gyrus
(Brodmann 44, 45). It is usually on the left hemisphere and is responsible for motor aspects of
speech. Broca Area in the inferior frontal lobe (Brodmann areas 44, 45) is an important center
for speech and language processing. This area, rostral to the inferior edge of the premotor area
(Brodmann area 6). Injury to this area results in difficulty forming or inability to for words
(expressive aphasia or dysphasia). Wernicke (posterior Brodmann 22) and adjacent portions of
the parietal lobe are a sensory speech area, responsible for reception and interpretation of
speech (aphasia/dysphasia). Insula (insular lobe) between hemispheres temporal and frontal
lobes, processes emotional information (pg 450). The basal ganglia nuclei are important for
emotional functions (pg 451). Cerebrum > forebrain/hindbrain
Broca's area = difficulty writing and finding words, See chart 17.10 (p523)
Know the function of the arachnoid villi. - CORRECT ANSWER -The arachnoid villi protrude from
the arachnoid space, through the dura mater, and lie within the blood flow of the venous
sinuses. The villi function as one-way valves directing CSF outflow into the blood but preventing
blood flow into the subarachnoid space. Thus CSF is formed from the blood and, after
circulating throughout the CNS, it returns to the blood. Absorbs CSF (pg 459)
Where is the primary defect in Parkinson's disease and Huntington's? - CORRECT ANSWER -
Extrapyramidal system; controls motor system (involuntary movement) (pg 451). Substantia
nigra (of the midbrain) synthesizes dopamine. The dysfunction of dopamine neurons is
associated with PD and Huntington's
,What is the function of the CSF? Where is it produced? Where is it absorbed? - CORRECT
ANSWER -Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless fluid similar to blood plasma and
interstitial fluid. The intracranial and spinal cord structures float in CSF and are thereby partially
protected from jolts and blows. The buoyant properties of the CSF also prevent the brain from
tugging on meninges, nerve roots, and blood vessels. Appx 600mL is produced daily (457).
Ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses are the structures that produce CSF; they arise from the
pia mater. The arachnoid villi reabsorb the CSF (p458)
Review blood flow to the brain. - CORRECT ANSWER -The brain receives approximately 20% of
the cardiac output, or 800 to 1000 mL of blood flow per minute. Autoregulated to maintain a
stable flow during fluctuating perfusion pressures. Carbon dioxide serves as a primary regulator
for blood flow within the CNS. It is a potent vasodilator in the CNS, and its effects ensure an
adequate blood supply. The brain derives its arterial supply from the internal carotid arteries
(anterior circulation) and the vertebral arteries (posterior circulation) (Fig. 15.20). The internal
carotid arteries supply a proportionately greater amount of blood flow. They originate at the
common carotid arteries, enter the cranium through the base of the skull, and pass through the
cavernous sinus. After entering the skull, these arteries divide into the anterior and middle
cerebral arteries (Fig. 15.21). The vertebral arteries originate at the subclavian arteries and pass
through the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae, entering the cranium through the
foramen magnum. They join at the junction of the pons and medulla oblongata to form the
basilar artery. The basilar artery divides at the level of the midbrain to form paired posterior
cerebral arteries (459). When one of the routes is obstructed, the circle of Willis is an alternate
route.
What is the gate control theory of pain? - CORRECT ANSWER -Gate control theory (GCT)
integrates and builds upon features of the other theories to explain the complex
multidimensional aspects of pain perception and pain modulation. Pain transmission is
modulated by a balance of impulses conducted to the spinal cord where cells in the substantia
gelatinosa function as a "gate." The spinal gate regulates pain transmission to higher centers in
the CNS. Large myelinated A-delta fibers and small unmyelinated C fibers respond to a broad
range of painful stimuli (mechanical, thermal, and chemical). These fibers terminate on
interneurons in the substantia gelatinosa (laminae in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord) and
"open" the spinal gate to transmit the perception of pain. Closure or partial closure of the spinal
gates can occur from nonnociceptive stimulation (i.e., from touch sensors in the skin) carried on
large A-beta fibers decreasing pain perception.
, The theories of pain include the specificity theory, pattern theory, gate control theory, and
neuromatrix theory. 4 Specificity theory proposes that pain and touch are carried on distinct
pathways that project to distinct brain centers. Injury activates only specific pain receptors and
fibers that project to the brain. Intensity of pain is directly related to the amount of associated
tissue injury (i.e., pricking one's finger with a needle would cause minimal pain, whereas cutting
one's hand with a knife would produce more pain). The theory is useful when applied to specific
injuries and the acute pain associated with them. It does not account for chronic pain or
cognitive and emotional elements that contribute to more complex types of pain. 5
Know the type of nerve fibers that transmit pain impulses. Page 470 - CORRECT ANSWER -
Transduction begins when nociceptors are activated by a painful stimulus causing ion channels
to open, creating electrical impulses that travel through axons or two primary types. Pain
impulses are conducted along the A-delta and C fibers of nociceptors.
A-delta fibers: larger myelinated fibers that rapidly transmit sharp, well-localized "fast"
sensations (intense heat or pinprick) "reflex"
· stimulated by mechanoreceptors and mechanothermal nociceptors
· Responsible for causing reflex withdrawal of the body from the painful stimulus
C Fibers: most numerous, smaller, unmyelinated, slowly transmit dull, aching, burning
sensations that are poorly localize and constant
· Stimulated by mechanical, thermal, and chemical nociceptors
A-beta fibers: NOT responsible to transmit pain, but play a role in pain modulation. Large,
myelinated fibers that transmit touch & vibration (p475)
Where in the CNS does pain perception occur? - CORRECT ANSWER -Pain perception occurs
primarily in the reticular and limbic systems and the cerebral cortex (p476)
It is the conscious awareness of pain; requires the interaction of three systems:
1. Sensory-discriminative system
Mediated by: the somatosensory cortex
Responsibility: identifying the presence, character, location and intensity of pain
2. Affective-motivational system
