BIO 168 final Exam Questions and Answers | Latest Update 2026/2027 | Graded A+ | Guaranteed Pass.

BIO 168 final Exam Questions and Answers | Latest Update 2026/2027 | Graded A+ | Guaranteed Pass. Define Anatomy ANSWERS Anatomy studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. Body structures can be seen, felt, and examined closely Define Physiology ANSWERS Physiology concerns the function of the body, in other words, how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities. Why study A and P together ANSWERS Because function always reflects structure. For example, bones can support and protect body organs because they contain hard mineral deposits, and blood flows in one direction through the heart because the heart has valves that prevent backflow. What is homeostasis? ANSWERS Homeostasis is used to describe its ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously. Although the literal translation of homeostasis is "unchanging," the term does not really mean a static, or unchanging, state. Rather, it indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance, in which internal conditions vary, but always within relatively narrow limits. In general, the body is in homeostasis when its needs are adequately met and it is functioning smoothly. The branches beyond this point make up the ____ ANSWERS Cauda equinum - where spinal nerves fan out What is a spinal reflex and give example ANSWERS Only involes nerves but not brain; Example: Knee jerk What does it mean to say that stimuli crossover ANSWERS It refers to nerves senses crossing over from the left side of body to right side of brain and vice versa. the crossover in medulla What does feedback control do? ANSWERS Regardless of the factor or event being regulated—the variable—all homeostatic control mechanisms have at least three interdependent components (Figure 1.4). The first component, the receptor, is some type of sensor that monitors the environment and responds to changes, called stimuli, by sending information (input) to the second component, the control center. Input flows from the receptor to the control center along the so-called afferent pathway. The control center, which determines the set point (the level or range at which a variable is to be maintained), analyzes the input it receives and then determines the appropriate response or course of action. The third component, the effector, provides the means for the control center's response (output) to the stimulus. Information flows from the control center to the effector along the efferent pathway. The results of the response then feed back to influence the stimulus, either depressing it (negative feedback) so that the whole control mechanism is shut off or enhancing it (positive feedback) so that the reaction continues at an even faster rate How are negative and positive feedback control different and Give an example of each ANSWERS Negative Feedback is self-regulatory mechanism - Received info about change, then reverses change back toward normal -output shuts off stimulus -prevent small changes from becoming too large Ex - Blood glucose or Body temperature. Positive Feedback is rare because output enhances stimulus -Ex - Labor or Blood clotting What the function of the dorsal root as seen in a cross section of the spinal cord ANSWERS Sensory What the function of the ventral root as seen in a cross section of the spinal cord ANSWERS motor what are the Eleven body systems ANSWERS Integumentary, Skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive Give general functions and organs in Integumentary ANSWERS ********Need More. Function: _________ Organ:skin Give general functions and organs in Skeletal ANSWERS Function: Protects & supports body organs. Organ: bones Give general functions and organs in muscular ANSWERS Function: Allows manipulation of the environment Organ: muscles - skeletal, smooth in organs and vessels, cardiac Give general functions and organs in nervous ANSWERS ********Need More. Function: _________ Organ: brain, spinal cord, peripheral Give general functions and organs in cardiovascular ANSWERS Function: Blood vessels carry blood with O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, etc, and heart pumps blood. Organ: heart and vessels Give general functions and organs in lymphatic ANSWERS Function: Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels. Organ: Lymph Nodes Give general functions and organs in respiratory ANSWERS Function: Keeps blood full of O2 and remove CO2. Organ: lungs Give general functions and organs in digestive ANSWERS Function: breaks down food into absorbable units. Organ: esophagus, stomach, intestines Give general functions and organs in urinary ANSWERS Function: Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Organ: kidneys, bladder Give general functions and organs in reproductive? ANSWERS ********Need More. Function: _________ Organ: reproduction and secondary sex characteristics Define metabolism? ANSWERS Metabolism (mĕ-tab′o-lizm; "a state of change") is a broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells. It includes breaking down substances into their simpler building blocks (more specifically called catabolism), synthesizing more complex cellular structures from simpler substances (anabolism), and using nutrients and oxygen to produce (via cellular respiration) ATP, the energy-rich molecules that power cellular activities. Metabolism depends on the digestive and respiratory systems to make nutrients and oxygen available to the blood and on the cardiovascular system to distribute these needed substances throughout the body. Metabolism is regulated largely by hormones secreted by endocrine system glands. Give general functions and organs in endocrine ANSWERS ********Need More. Function: _________ Organ: hormones - sex organs, thyroid, pancreas What are the three subatomic particles? ANSWERS Proton (+), Neutron (no charge), electrons~Orbitals (-) Know the three subatomic particles by charge and location? ANSWERS ********Need More What are the 4 major Elements in the body? ANSWERS C - carbon, H - hydrogen, O - oxygen, N - nitrogen Know names and symbols C, H, O, N, K, Na, Ca, Cl, Fe, P, S, I? ANSWERS Ca - calcium, P - phosphorus, K - potassium, Na - sodium Isotopes what are they - relate them to a medical use? ANSWERS "Atoms w unusual number of neutrons are called isotopes. Radioactive Isotopes atoms that undergo spontaneous decay will give off radioactivity as it returns to common state. In medicine, to diagnose, we use radioactive isotopes that return to stable state in only a dew days (tracers) - tracked by radiation they emit. Cancer treatment different isotopes w longer lifespans" Chemical Bonds? ANSWERS Forces that hold atoms together in compounds. Breaking bonds releases stored energy (think digestion) What atoms form Ionic types of bonds? ANSWERS NaCl How is Ionic bond formed? ANSWERS transferred electrons What is the strength of Ionic bond? ANSWERS weaker What atoms form Covalent types of bonds? ANSWERS C, H, O, N How is Covalent bond formed? ANSWERS shared electrons Describe each of the three types Chemical Reactions and give an example of each for Synthesis? ANSWERS Synthesis is forming a compound: A + B -- AB Describe each of the three types Chemical Reactions and give an example of each for Decomposition? ANSWERS "Decomposition - breaking a compound and releasing energy AB -- A + B " Describe each of the three types Chemical Reactions and give an example of each for Reversible? ANSWERS Reversible A + B --AB (arrow should go both ways) Describe each of the three types Chemical Reactions and give an example of each for Exchange? ANSWERS Exchange reaction - AB + C -- AC + B What are Inorganic Molecules? ANSWERS Inorganic do not contain carbon and usually dissolve in water to produce ions (electrolytes) What are 4 functions of Water? ANSWERS Water is 2/3 wt of person - blood, body fluids. 1. High heat capacity - absorbs & releases much heat w/out changing temp. 2. High heat of vaporization - changing fr liquid to gas requires much heat. 3. Good solvent- major transport medium. 4. Takes part in many chemical reactions. 5. Cushioning for certain body organs. Electrolytes - list? ANSWERS Salts -compounds that dissolve in water, but don't release H+ or OH- Ions in them are called electrolytes because they are charged particles- conduct electricity Changes in balance affect body function Ex. Na, K, Ca Maintained at a certain level to maintain homeostasis Define Acids? ANSWERS compounds that when dissolved in water give off hydrogen ions H+ Define Bases? ANSWERS compounds that when dissolved in water pick up H+ or give off OH- What is pH scale range? ANSWERS pH scale 1-14. 1-7 is acidic. 7 is neutral. 7- 14 is basic (alkaline) Why important to humans? ANSWERS stabilize pH by removing H+ or adding them. Ex. Carbonic acid-carbonate buffer system in the blood. Give an example and pH of weak acid? ANSWERS milk - 6, coffee - 7 Give an example and pH of strong acid? ANSWERS lab acid - 1, stomach acid, lemon, pepsi - 2 What is the strength of Covalent bond? ANSWERS very tight Polar covalent - importance in hydrogen bonding? ANSWERS Polar covalent bonds have charged ends that attract molecules that have the opposite charge. These are responsible for bonds between water molecules Hydogen bond - what is it and how strong? ANSWERS is a Polar covalent bond. It is weak (polar attractions). The H+ bond to the O- and so on. Give an example and pH of neutral? ANSWERS H2O - 7 Give an example and pH of weak base? ANSWERS egg white - 8 Give an example and pH of strong base? ANSWERS oven cleaner - 13 What is normal blood pH? ANSWERS pH 7.35 - 7.45 (homeostasis). Alkalosis - above 7.5 - agitated and dizzy. Acidosis - below 7.3 - disoriented and fatigued, difficulty breathing What are these Organic molecules ? ANSWERS Carbon atoms that form Convalent bonds. The 4 major macromolecules are Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, & Nucleic acids Carbohydrates - atoms in this group? ANSWERS C,H, O. Function is fast energy, supplies food for cells What size are simple sugars, give examples and sources of Simple sugars? ANSWERS Simple carb, monosaccharide. Examples are Glucose, Fructose, Galactose, & Ribose give examples and sources of monosaccharides? ANSWERS ********Need More. Examples are IV solution & Orange Juice give examples and sources of disaccharides? ANSWERS Sucrose - Table Sugar (Glucose and Fructose), Lactose - Milk Sugar (Glucose and Galactose), Maltose - Malt/Grain Sugar (Glucose and Glucose) give examples and sources of Complex Sugars / Polysaccharides - size? ANSWERS it is a polymer. Examples: Starch - plant storage of glucose, Glycogen - animal storage of glucose, Muscle and liver, & Cellulose - fiber - structural - in plant cell wall give examples and sources of Sugars from plants? ANSWERS Starch what is oxygen used for? ANSWERS used to release energy from food How does oxygen get to the body cells? ANSWERS lungs, blood What is carbon dioxide used for? ANSWERS waste How do body cells get rid of carbon dioxide? ANSWERS exhaled from lungs