• The growth of resentment to British rule enabled charismatic,
articulate leaders, who were oft educated in the West where they
studied Western democratic ideals, to emerge & demanded
immediate independence.
• They were encouraged by the success of Nasser in challenging
Britain.
International Britain • In 1955, 25 newly independent nations met in Indonesia to
denounce European imperialism.
Reasons for decolonisation • In Kenya resistance to colonialism was violent, w 14,000 being
killed in a virtual civil war between ppl who were pro vs against
Growth of colonial nationalism colonial rule.
• The ugly decolonisation narratives of the French made many in the
[=6, =1] GB wary of a violent process. They hoped taking the initiative would
make it more peaceful.
• Macmillan recognised the strength of anti-colonial nationalism &
told the South African gov that "the wind of change is blowing
through this continent",
Violent resistance put additional strain on the GB economy.
Perhaps the main concern was the economy.
• Establishment of the Commonwealth meant countries could maintain
ties w the GB w/o recognising the GB monarch as head of state.
• Commonwealth troops oft provided the GB w assistance – e.g. Korean
War & supressing the uprisings in Malaya.
• 1944 - Nelson Mandela's gov in South Africa re-joined w/in a month of
being elected. Suggests that the Commonwealth was a viable insti.
International Britain • 1971 Singapore Declaration emphasised human rights & was codified
in the Commonwealth Charter.
Success of decolonisation o Nigeria's membership was suspended in 1995-99 for violating
them, showing the Commonwealth was moral.
Managing post-colonial relations • The Commonwealth still exists & despite its lack of political power,
remains a respected medium for cultural & economic exchange.
[=6, =3] • Suez Crisis & Rhodesian crisis threatened unity b/c white-ruled &
majority black countries supported diff sides.
• During 1970s & 80s, GB was criticised for its economic ties w apartheid
S Africa, esp sale of armaments, & for refusing to impose economic
sanctions.
1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act was resented by black nations
b/c it was designed to limit black immigration to GB.
• India gained in 1947. Although the process was not w/o violence, it ultimately
led to the peaceful transfer of power. This set a precedent for other colonies
seeking independence & helped to shape the UK's approach to decolonisation.
• Ghana was the 1st African colony to gain independence in 1957. The UK worked
closely w its leaders to develop a consti & establish democratic institutions, which
helped to ensure a peaceful transition. Served as a model for other African
International Britain •
countries seeking independence.
In Rhodesia, the white minority gov declared independence in 1965. A
Success of decolonisation settlement was negotiated in 1979 (Lancaster House Agreement) but this was seen
as a compromise that fell short of true democracy - allowed the white minority to
retain much of their economic & political power.
The process of granting independence • 1952-60 Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya was a response to GB colonial rule - GB
responded w force, leading to 1000s of deaths.
[=2, =5] • Violence or civil wars occurred in many countries in the process or as a result of
independence. This meant that the countries were often left in chaos & expensive
military action was required in distant ex-colonies.
o E.g. Nigeria became independent in 1960. Ethnic tension caused
instability & a civil war lasted from 1967-70.
Power was oft handed to nationalist leaders who the British had previously
imprisoned as terrorists such as Nkrumah in Ghana or Kenyatta in Kenya.
, The end of colonial rule allowed former colonies to develop
their own economies & resources, which in turn led to incr trade
opportunities for the UK - E.g. India & Hong Kong.
Commonwealth Development Corporation invested in
businesses & infrastructure in newly independent countries.
International Britain The end of colonialism allowed for the UK to focus on other
areas of the world for economic development & trade – e.g. the
Success of decolonisation USA.
The UK oft failed to provide adequate support for the
Economic impact of decolonisation development of newly independent countries - oft resulted in
[=3, =3] economic & political instability - E.g. Uganda.
The end of colonialism oft led to economic dependence on the
GB as many of the newly independent countries lacked the
resources & infrastructure to build their own economies.
GB sacrificed its trade links w the Commonwealth by joining
the EEC in 1973.
• 1974 – Wilson went on a 4-day visit to the USSR where he met
Brezhnev.
• 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia was strongly
condemned by the UK and other Western countries - marked a
significant deterioration in relations.
• The GB joined the US-led boycott of the 1980 Summer
International Britain Olympics in Moscow in protest of the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan.
Relations w the USSR • The USSR expelled 18 GB diplomats accused of spying for the
GB, leading to the GB expelling 105 in response for the same
1964-79 Conservative & Labour govs reason.
[=1, =6] • Each side was involved in espionage & counter-espionage.
o Jan 63 Philby scandal – revealed that Philby (senior
official in the foreign office) had been passing info to the
USSR for decades & ran a spy network.
o Vassal affair – civil servant in the admiralty was caught
spying for the USSR. An enquiry ensued but no clear
evidence was found.
In 1951, Britain still had a large empire & was considered a
major world power.
GB played a central role in creating the OEEC to administer
Marshall aid in 1948.
GB was a founding member of the Council of Europe in 1949.
o The UK's relationship w the EU was oft strained, w
International Britain disputes over issues such as budget contributions & the
Position as a major power
Maastricht Treaty in the 1990s.
As one of the big three, Britain played a key role in establishing
Political the UN in 1945.
The GB's position as a permanent member of the security
[=5, =3] council gave it a powerful veto to influence international affairs.
GB played no part in establishing the EEC or the European Coal
& Steel Community
In the Suez crisis, the failed invasion & immediate w/drawal on
Eisenhower's protest showed how reliant the GB was on US
support.
articulate leaders, who were oft educated in the West where they
studied Western democratic ideals, to emerge & demanded
immediate independence.
• They were encouraged by the success of Nasser in challenging
Britain.
International Britain • In 1955, 25 newly independent nations met in Indonesia to
denounce European imperialism.
Reasons for decolonisation • In Kenya resistance to colonialism was violent, w 14,000 being
killed in a virtual civil war between ppl who were pro vs against
Growth of colonial nationalism colonial rule.
• The ugly decolonisation narratives of the French made many in the
[=6, =1] GB wary of a violent process. They hoped taking the initiative would
make it more peaceful.
• Macmillan recognised the strength of anti-colonial nationalism &
told the South African gov that "the wind of change is blowing
through this continent",
Violent resistance put additional strain on the GB economy.
Perhaps the main concern was the economy.
• Establishment of the Commonwealth meant countries could maintain
ties w the GB w/o recognising the GB monarch as head of state.
• Commonwealth troops oft provided the GB w assistance – e.g. Korean
War & supressing the uprisings in Malaya.
• 1944 - Nelson Mandela's gov in South Africa re-joined w/in a month of
being elected. Suggests that the Commonwealth was a viable insti.
International Britain • 1971 Singapore Declaration emphasised human rights & was codified
in the Commonwealth Charter.
Success of decolonisation o Nigeria's membership was suspended in 1995-99 for violating
them, showing the Commonwealth was moral.
Managing post-colonial relations • The Commonwealth still exists & despite its lack of political power,
remains a respected medium for cultural & economic exchange.
[=6, =3] • Suez Crisis & Rhodesian crisis threatened unity b/c white-ruled &
majority black countries supported diff sides.
• During 1970s & 80s, GB was criticised for its economic ties w apartheid
S Africa, esp sale of armaments, & for refusing to impose economic
sanctions.
1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act was resented by black nations
b/c it was designed to limit black immigration to GB.
• India gained in 1947. Although the process was not w/o violence, it ultimately
led to the peaceful transfer of power. This set a precedent for other colonies
seeking independence & helped to shape the UK's approach to decolonisation.
• Ghana was the 1st African colony to gain independence in 1957. The UK worked
closely w its leaders to develop a consti & establish democratic institutions, which
helped to ensure a peaceful transition. Served as a model for other African
International Britain •
countries seeking independence.
In Rhodesia, the white minority gov declared independence in 1965. A
Success of decolonisation settlement was negotiated in 1979 (Lancaster House Agreement) but this was seen
as a compromise that fell short of true democracy - allowed the white minority to
retain much of their economic & political power.
The process of granting independence • 1952-60 Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya was a response to GB colonial rule - GB
responded w force, leading to 1000s of deaths.
[=2, =5] • Violence or civil wars occurred in many countries in the process or as a result of
independence. This meant that the countries were often left in chaos & expensive
military action was required in distant ex-colonies.
o E.g. Nigeria became independent in 1960. Ethnic tension caused
instability & a civil war lasted from 1967-70.
Power was oft handed to nationalist leaders who the British had previously
imprisoned as terrorists such as Nkrumah in Ghana or Kenyatta in Kenya.
, The end of colonial rule allowed former colonies to develop
their own economies & resources, which in turn led to incr trade
opportunities for the UK - E.g. India & Hong Kong.
Commonwealth Development Corporation invested in
businesses & infrastructure in newly independent countries.
International Britain The end of colonialism allowed for the UK to focus on other
areas of the world for economic development & trade – e.g. the
Success of decolonisation USA.
The UK oft failed to provide adequate support for the
Economic impact of decolonisation development of newly independent countries - oft resulted in
[=3, =3] economic & political instability - E.g. Uganda.
The end of colonialism oft led to economic dependence on the
GB as many of the newly independent countries lacked the
resources & infrastructure to build their own economies.
GB sacrificed its trade links w the Commonwealth by joining
the EEC in 1973.
• 1974 – Wilson went on a 4-day visit to the USSR where he met
Brezhnev.
• 1968 Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia was strongly
condemned by the UK and other Western countries - marked a
significant deterioration in relations.
• The GB joined the US-led boycott of the 1980 Summer
International Britain Olympics in Moscow in protest of the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan.
Relations w the USSR • The USSR expelled 18 GB diplomats accused of spying for the
GB, leading to the GB expelling 105 in response for the same
1964-79 Conservative & Labour govs reason.
[=1, =6] • Each side was involved in espionage & counter-espionage.
o Jan 63 Philby scandal – revealed that Philby (senior
official in the foreign office) had been passing info to the
USSR for decades & ran a spy network.
o Vassal affair – civil servant in the admiralty was caught
spying for the USSR. An enquiry ensued but no clear
evidence was found.
In 1951, Britain still had a large empire & was considered a
major world power.
GB played a central role in creating the OEEC to administer
Marshall aid in 1948.
GB was a founding member of the Council of Europe in 1949.
o The UK's relationship w the EU was oft strained, w
International Britain disputes over issues such as budget contributions & the
Position as a major power
Maastricht Treaty in the 1990s.
As one of the big three, Britain played a key role in establishing
Political the UN in 1945.
The GB's position as a permanent member of the security
[=5, =3] council gave it a powerful veto to influence international affairs.
GB played no part in establishing the EEC or the European Coal
& Steel Community
In the Suez crisis, the failed invasion & immediate w/drawal on
Eisenhower's protest showed how reliant the GB was on US
support.
