Paper 3
Issues & debates + Relationships
, Gender bias 1. Gender differences are given as fixed and enduring:
Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) concluded that girls have better verbal ability and boys have better spatial
Bias: when considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to
ability - due to hardwired biological brain differences. Joel et al (2015) used brain scanning and found
treat one individual or group in a different way from others, which
no such gender differences. Suggesting we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts
creates a distorted view of the world.
when it might be explained better as social stereotypes.
HW + Multitasking:
Gender bias: a type of bias where psychological research or theory
Ingalhalikar et al (2014) suggested the popular social stereotypes that females are better at
may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience
multitasking may have some biological truth to it - their hemispheres are better connected. This
of men or women (usually women). It is the differential treatment or
representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than suggests that there may be biological differences but we still should be wary of exaggerating the
real differences. effect they may have on behaviour.
Alpha Bias: Psychological theories/research that over exaggerate 2. Gender bias promotes sexism in the research process:
or overestimate differences between the sexes. Women are underrepresented in university departments (Murphy et al - 2014) Research is more likely
to be conducted by males which may disadvantage females. For example, a male researcher may
Alpha bias favouring males: Freud claimed that children in the expect female participants to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks which may mean
phallic stage, desire their opposite sex parent. This is resolved by they underperform. Meaning institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce
identification with their same sex parent. But girls' identification is findings that are gender biassed.
weaker, creating a weaker superego and weaker moral FM - Research challenging bias may not be published:
development. Formanowicz et al (2018) analysed 1000 articles relating to gender bias - such research is funded less
often and is published by less prestigious journals. This still held true when gender bias was
Alpha bias favouring females: Chodorow said that daughters and compared to ethnic bias, and when other factors were controlled (gender of author and
mothers are more connected than mothers and sons because of the methodology). This suggests that gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously
biological similarities - so women develop better bonds and as other forms of bias.
empathy for others.
3. + misleading assumptions made
Beta Bias: Psychological theories/research that ignore, minimise or Assumptions about females behaviour mislead and fails to challenge negative stereotypes and creates
underestimate differences between the sexes. discriminatory practices.
HW + modern researchers recognise the effect assumptions have on their work (reflexivity) and
Androcentrism: Female behaviour being misunderstood and embrace them as a crucial aspect of the research process. This suggests that gender bias may add an
pathologized. extra dimension to research if psychologists are up front about it in their work.
, Cultural bias - A tendency to ignore cultural
differences and interpret Cultural bias
all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one’s own 1. - Many classic studies are culturally - biased
culture. I.e. if we are Asch’s + Milgram’s original studies were conducted with white middle class US
‘normal’ then any behaviour that is different participants. Replications of these studies in different countries produced rather
(i.e. cultural differences) is different results. Asch - type experiments in collectivist cultures found significantly
‘abnormal’, ‘unusual’ or ‘inferior.’ Cultural relativism - ideas that
higher rates of conformity than the original studies in the US, an individualist culture.
This means that the behaviour of other norms and values are understood in
(E.g. Smith + Bond 1993)
cultures is misrepresented. It is specific social and cultural contexts. This suggest our understanding of topics such as social influence should only be
usually the result of ignoring the role that This way cultural applied to individualist cultures.
culture plays in influencing bias can be avoided. + Individualism - collectivism distinction may no be longer apply due to
behaviour and so mistakenly assuming that EMIC RESEARCH - studies one increasing global media, e.g. Takano + Osaka (1999) found that 14 of 15
results from studies in culture alone to understand studies comparing the US and Japan found no evidence of individualist
Western culture apply all over the world. culture-specific behaviours. versus collectivist differences. This suggest that cultural bias in research
Ethnocentrism - a type of cultural bias. It is Etic RESEARCH: studies that may be less of an issue in more recent psychological research.
the use of our own ethnic assess behaviour from outside
group as a basis for judgements about other the observed behaviour in order 1. + emergence of cultural psychology
to identify universal Is the study of how people shape + are shaped by their cultural experience (Cohen
groups. There is a belief in
behaviours. 2017). It is an emerging field that takes an emic approach. Research is conducted from
the superiority of one’s own cultural group.
Imposed etic: Ainsworth imposed inside a culture, often alongside local researchers using culturally - based techniques.
Any difference seen in other Fewer cultures are considered when comparing differences ( usually just two). This
groups is seen as deficiency or her ideas and ways of measuring
attachment from outside of the suggests that modern psychologists are mindful of the dangers of cultural bias and
underdevelopment. are taking steps to avoid it.
culture she was studying (assumed
they were true ‘everywhere’) HW - ethnic stereotyping
Ainsworth identified the key variable of Gould explained how the 1st intelligence tests led to eugenic social policies in America.
attachment type as the child’s separation During WWI psychologists give IQ tests to 1.75 million army recruits. Many test items
anxiety. The were ethnocentric (e.g. nae US president) so recruit from south eastern Europe +
‘ideal’ secure attachment was characterised African - Americans scored lowest were deemed genetically inferior.
by This illustrates how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice + discrimination
moderate separation anxiety. towards ethnic + cultural groups.
Therefore, the Strange Situation is an 2. - Cross cultural research + viewing the world. This may provide us with a
inappropriate better understanding of human nature.
measure of attachment type for non-US HW - research suggests that facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the
children. world, so some behaviours are universal. This suggests a full understanding of human
behaviour requires both, but for too long the universal view dominated.
Issues & debates + Relationships
, Gender bias 1. Gender differences are given as fixed and enduring:
Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) concluded that girls have better verbal ability and boys have better spatial
Bias: when considering human behaviour, bias is a tendency to
ability - due to hardwired biological brain differences. Joel et al (2015) used brain scanning and found
treat one individual or group in a different way from others, which
no such gender differences. Suggesting we should be wary of accepting research as biological facts
creates a distorted view of the world.
when it might be explained better as social stereotypes.
HW + Multitasking:
Gender bias: a type of bias where psychological research or theory
Ingalhalikar et al (2014) suggested the popular social stereotypes that females are better at
may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience
multitasking may have some biological truth to it - their hemispheres are better connected. This
of men or women (usually women). It is the differential treatment or
representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than suggests that there may be biological differences but we still should be wary of exaggerating the
real differences. effect they may have on behaviour.
Alpha Bias: Psychological theories/research that over exaggerate 2. Gender bias promotes sexism in the research process:
or overestimate differences between the sexes. Women are underrepresented in university departments (Murphy et al - 2014) Research is more likely
to be conducted by males which may disadvantage females. For example, a male researcher may
Alpha bias favouring males: Freud claimed that children in the expect female participants to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks which may mean
phallic stage, desire their opposite sex parent. This is resolved by they underperform. Meaning institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce
identification with their same sex parent. But girls' identification is findings that are gender biassed.
weaker, creating a weaker superego and weaker moral FM - Research challenging bias may not be published:
development. Formanowicz et al (2018) analysed 1000 articles relating to gender bias - such research is funded less
often and is published by less prestigious journals. This still held true when gender bias was
Alpha bias favouring females: Chodorow said that daughters and compared to ethnic bias, and when other factors were controlled (gender of author and
mothers are more connected than mothers and sons because of the methodology). This suggests that gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously
biological similarities - so women develop better bonds and as other forms of bias.
empathy for others.
3. + misleading assumptions made
Beta Bias: Psychological theories/research that ignore, minimise or Assumptions about females behaviour mislead and fails to challenge negative stereotypes and creates
underestimate differences between the sexes. discriminatory practices.
HW + modern researchers recognise the effect assumptions have on their work (reflexivity) and
Androcentrism: Female behaviour being misunderstood and embrace them as a crucial aspect of the research process. This suggests that gender bias may add an
pathologized. extra dimension to research if psychologists are up front about it in their work.
, Cultural bias - A tendency to ignore cultural
differences and interpret Cultural bias
all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one’s own 1. - Many classic studies are culturally - biased
culture. I.e. if we are Asch’s + Milgram’s original studies were conducted with white middle class US
‘normal’ then any behaviour that is different participants. Replications of these studies in different countries produced rather
(i.e. cultural differences) is different results. Asch - type experiments in collectivist cultures found significantly
‘abnormal’, ‘unusual’ or ‘inferior.’ Cultural relativism - ideas that
higher rates of conformity than the original studies in the US, an individualist culture.
This means that the behaviour of other norms and values are understood in
(E.g. Smith + Bond 1993)
cultures is misrepresented. It is specific social and cultural contexts. This suggest our understanding of topics such as social influence should only be
usually the result of ignoring the role that This way cultural applied to individualist cultures.
culture plays in influencing bias can be avoided. + Individualism - collectivism distinction may no be longer apply due to
behaviour and so mistakenly assuming that EMIC RESEARCH - studies one increasing global media, e.g. Takano + Osaka (1999) found that 14 of 15
results from studies in culture alone to understand studies comparing the US and Japan found no evidence of individualist
Western culture apply all over the world. culture-specific behaviours. versus collectivist differences. This suggest that cultural bias in research
Ethnocentrism - a type of cultural bias. It is Etic RESEARCH: studies that may be less of an issue in more recent psychological research.
the use of our own ethnic assess behaviour from outside
group as a basis for judgements about other the observed behaviour in order 1. + emergence of cultural psychology
to identify universal Is the study of how people shape + are shaped by their cultural experience (Cohen
groups. There is a belief in
behaviours. 2017). It is an emerging field that takes an emic approach. Research is conducted from
the superiority of one’s own cultural group.
Imposed etic: Ainsworth imposed inside a culture, often alongside local researchers using culturally - based techniques.
Any difference seen in other Fewer cultures are considered when comparing differences ( usually just two). This
groups is seen as deficiency or her ideas and ways of measuring
attachment from outside of the suggests that modern psychologists are mindful of the dangers of cultural bias and
underdevelopment. are taking steps to avoid it.
culture she was studying (assumed
they were true ‘everywhere’) HW - ethnic stereotyping
Ainsworth identified the key variable of Gould explained how the 1st intelligence tests led to eugenic social policies in America.
attachment type as the child’s separation During WWI psychologists give IQ tests to 1.75 million army recruits. Many test items
anxiety. The were ethnocentric (e.g. nae US president) so recruit from south eastern Europe +
‘ideal’ secure attachment was characterised African - Americans scored lowest were deemed genetically inferior.
by This illustrates how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice + discrimination
moderate separation anxiety. towards ethnic + cultural groups.
Therefore, the Strange Situation is an 2. - Cross cultural research + viewing the world. This may provide us with a
inappropriate better understanding of human nature.
measure of attachment type for non-US HW - research suggests that facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the
children. world, so some behaviours are universal. This suggests a full understanding of human
behaviour requires both, but for too long the universal view dominated.
