Sociology Theory and Methods
Theory
Consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories:
Consensus theories -:
Individuals are socialised into a value consensus i.e. an agreement about the norms and values
of society.
This ensures social order.
Conflict theories -:
Society is based on conflict.
Individuals are socialised into accepting an unfair, oppressive economic system.
Structural theories -:
Macro-sociology, taking a top-down approach (objective).
Individuals are the puppets of society.
Behaviour is shaped, moulded and constrained by social institutions and structures i.e. values
and norms to perform certain functions.
Institutions have their own specialised functions: structural differentiation.
Social action theories -:
Micro-sociology, taking a bottom-up approach (subjective).
People possess agency (free will and choice to form their own identities).
Behaviour is driven by meanings, feelings and emotions people give to situations.
Society is created through social action.
Functionalism - Structural consensus theory of modernity.
Society is more powerful than individuals, determining individual behaviour through the process
of socialisation.
Every institution has a positive function and is indispensable (central/necessary to the whole)
and interdependent (relies on others).
Any institution without function will eventually disappear; it has no use.
Emile Durkheim - The founding father of functionalism in the 19th century, who had the aim of
explaining how social order is possible:
1. Socialisation - the process of learning norms and values, making us the 'puppets of society'.
2. Interaction.
3. Value consensus - an agreement about what is important and what is not in society.
4. Solidarity - a group commitment to one another.
5. Strong collective conscience (which ultimately means social stability is achieved).
Organic analogy - The comparison of how society works to a living organism:
Each part is indispensable.
Each part is interdependent.
Each part can get 'sick' or dysfunctional. This leads to a state of anomie (normlessness).
Each part can evolve and change over time.
Both have essential needs (AGIL).
,Talcott Parsons - Believed in two processes which mean that social life becomes shared, predictable and
co-operative:
1. Socialisation - internalising society's norms.
2. Social control - society's values being strengthened/re-affirmed formally (e.g. courts, police,
prisons etc.) and informally (e.g. education, family, religion etc.).
AGIL - Parsons identified 'functional prerequisites' (basic needs):
Adaptation - meeting material needs (e.g. the economy and political system).
Goal attainment - setting and achieving goals (e.g. the economy and political system).
Integration - all parts working together (e.g. education, media, religion).
Latency - socialisation and ensuring tension management (e.g. education, family, religion).
Strengths of Functionalism:
Explains how society works as a whole.
Explains how societies evolve and adapt.
Explains how social order is possible.
Explains different functions of institutions and roles of individuals.
Internal criticisms of Functionalism (Robert Merton*):
It assumes indispensability - not all institutions are indispensable. For example, jobs can be
performed in different ways, with other functional alternatives such as civil religion in the USA
or primary socialisation being performed by a number of family types (not just the nuclear).
It assumes functional unity i.e. interdependence - Parsons assumes institutions need to work
together and that there will be a knock-on effect if one part changes. However, Merton argues
that some institutions have functional autonomy and that they are not all interrelated. For
example, society would not necessarily collapse if the nuclear family went.
It assumes universal functionalism i.e. positive functions - Parsons assumes that every part of
society performs positive functions for society as a whole. However, Merton argues that some
aspects of society may be dysfunctional for certain groups, developed by conflict perspectives.
For example, the dark side of the family.
External criticisms of Functionalism:
Conflict criticism - ignores power, inequality and conflict in society which is not based on
consensus but instead exploitation and division. For example, class conflict and patriarchy.
Social action criticism - too deterministic, taking an over-socialised view of individuals who are
said to have no free will or choice. Social action theorists would argue that individuals create
society through their interactions.
Postmodern criticism - out of date theory which tries to explain social structures which are now
fragmenting (e.g. class, gender, religion etc.) and having much less influence of people's lives.
Functionalism is therefore obsolete.
*Robert Merton - Also distinguishes between 2 types of functions (useful for research):
1. Manifest function - the function the individual is aware of.
2. Latent function - the function that is 'hidden' or unknown to the individual. This one is GOOD for
society.
Classic Marxism - Structural conflict theory of modernity.
Structural theory because it believes society is more powerful than the individual.
Conflict theory because it argues that that society is built on conflict (between the most
powerful bourgeoise who own the means of production and the least powerful proletariat who
own nothing but their labour power).
, The proletariat accept their powerlessness because they have been socialised into the idea that
inequality is normal (a false class consciousness). This prevents a revolt, and so they are
exploited and oppressed by the bourgeoise.
All institutions in society exist to benefit and serve the needs of the capitalists/economy. These
are called the Ideological State Apparatus because they control people's minds through
socialisation.
Marxists want a revolt and for communism to replace capitalism.
Historical materialism:
Humans have basic needs which must be fulfilled.
Therefore, the means of production (labour power, factories, land, machinery) and the social
relations of production (people to organise production) are needed.
As society progresses, so does the social relations, which gives rise to two classes: one that owns
the means of production (bourgeoise) and one that owns their labour power (proletariat).
Together, the means of production and the social relations of production create the mode of
production.
This shapes the economic base of society and determines all other institutions in society.
Class society and exploitation:
Primitive communism is the earliest type of society described by Marx.
Here there is no private ownership and no exploitation: a classless society.
However, as the social relations change, classes emerge.
The bourgeoise can produce and control a surplus, which allows them to exploit the proletariat,
whilst also allowing them to survive. 3 successive class societies followed:
1. Ancient society - based on the exploitation of slaves legally tied to their owners.
2. Feudal society - based on the exploitation of serfs legally tied to the land.
3. Capitalist society - based on the exploitation of free wage labourers.
Capitalism:
This is an unfair economic system whereby the class who own the means of production are
known as the bourgeoise and those who own their labour power are known as the proletariat.
Capitalism is distinctive from both ancient and feudal society for 3 main reasons:
1. The proletariat are legally free from the means of production and have to sell their labour power
to survive.
2. Ownership of the means of production becomes more concentrated in fewer hands, leading to
giant multinational companies, increased competition and small independent producers
becoming proletarianised.
3. The means of production are expanded to make more profit, production becomes ever-larger
and new technology leads to de-skilling of the workforce (automation).
Ideology:
Marx says that the bourgeoise also own the means of mental production (ideas).
This dominant class also has dominant ideas, which must be accepted by the proletariat.
The Ideological State Apparatus (institutions that spread these ideas) create a false class
consciousness that maintains inequality and perpetuate capitalist ideology.
Class consciousness:
Marx thought capitalism sowed the seeds of its own destruction.
Forcing the working class into ever-larger numbers and driving down their wages/skill would
cause them to develop an awareness of their exploitation.
Therefore, Marx thought that the proletariat would become a class in itself, become class
conscious and then overthrow capitalism through a revolution.
,Alienation:
This is a lack of power and control in the production process; it reaches its peak in a capitalist
society for 2 reasons:
1. Workers are completely separated from and have no control over the forces of production.
2. The division of labour is at its most intense and detailed: the worker is reduced to an unskilled
labourer mindlessly repeating a meaningless task.
Revolution:
Marx hoped that a proletariat majority revolution against a bourgeoise minority would:
1. Abolish the state and create a classless, communist society.
2. Abolish exploitation and replace private ownership with social ownership.
3. End alienation as humans regain control of their labour and its products.
The Superstructure:
The economy is the base of society - the infrastructure. It involves the production of a surplus
for profit and underpins other Marxist notions including the means of production (land,
machines, factories) and relations of production (people).
The rest are ISAs, which control people's minds. They all maintain a false class consciousness
and produce/spread the dominant ideology. For example:
1. The family - ensures inheritance and tension management.
2. Education system - provides the hidden curriculum and reproduces the workforce.
3. The media - drip feeds scandal and gossip to divert our attention.
4. Religion - comfort and morality.
5. Legal system - produces and defends laws that protect the interests of the dominant class and
protect private property.
Economic determinism - The idea that the economy is the dominant institution and determines
everything in society (one-way causality).
Strengths of Classic Marxism:
Highly influential theory - provides an understanding of how society can be improved and raises
public awareness.
Provides us with an understanding of economic determinism.
Criticisms of Classic Marxism:
Simplistic view of inequality i.e. based on class, thereby ignoring gender and ethnicity.
Two-class model is also simplistic. Weber divides the proletariat into skilled and unskilled,
including a middle class who are petty capitalists and professionals (e.g. doctors, nurses,
lawyers, teachers etc.).
No revolution criticism - Marx predicted that the most advanced capitalist societies would revolt
- the only Marxist-led revolution was in Russia (1917).
Neo-Marxism - Explains society differently to Marx and deals with criticisms/weaknesses of classic
Marxism.
Humanistic Marxism (Antonio Gramsci) - Combines Marxism and social action theories, explaining the
'no revolution' criticism of Marx, who is said to have under-estimated the power of ideology in a
capitalist society.
Consent - justifies ruling class power (e.g. education, the family etc.).
Coercion - persuades individuals to be obedient (e.g. army, police, courts, prisons etc.).
The ruling class are the minority and the proletariat have a 'dual consciousness' - they are
influence by ruling class ideology but also see their poor material conditions, so to some extent
can see through the dominant ideology.
, Ruling class ideology may be undermined; however, a revolution can only occur if the proletariat
construct a counter hegemonic bloc (a real, working alternative in leading society) and by
organic intellectuals (class conscious workers united into a revolutionary political party).
Hegemony - How the ruling class maintain their power through the consent of the subordinate class.
Structuralist Marxism (Louis Althusser) - Rejects humanistic Marxism and the free will of individuals,
focussing more on the power of social structure.
Althusser disagreed with Marx's infrastructure/superstructure model because he rejected the
notion that the economy is determined by all institutions and that they supported the economy
- he favours structural determinism over economic determinism.
There is two-way causality because the economy can affect what happens in each the
ideological level and the political level, but they can also affect what is happening in the
economy; each level has relative autonomy (some independence) from the economy:
1. The ideological level: Ideological State Apparatus - the way the people are manipulated to
accept society (e.g. the family, education etc.).
2. The political level: Repressive State Apparatus - all forms of organisation (e.g. the government,
political parties, laws etc.).
3. The economy.
Three story house analogy (Ian Craib 1992) - Illustrates Althusser's ideas of relative autonomy and two-
way causality.
1. Top floor - family will be shaped by the shop but also has its own dynamics. It might also shape
the shop i.e. through a divorce.
2. The office - organised in different ways regardless of the shop activity and might be organised in
the same way regardless of the nature of the shop.
3. The shop - how well the business is going affects the nature of work in the office and family life
i.e. being able to afford a holiday.
Feminism - Structural conflict theory of modernity.
First Wave (early 20th century):
Focused on raising women's consciousness of equality and gaining equality in voting and
property rights.
Suffragette movement - vote granted to some women in 1918 and full equality gained in 1928.
Marie Stopes campaigned for birth control rights and founded the first birth control clinic (use of
cervical cap) in 1918.
Mary Wollstoncraft (1992) - Author of two famous books advocating the social, moral and sexual
equality of the sexes.
Second Wave (mid-late 20th century):
Women felt frustrated and deflated when they returned to the housewife/mother role after the
end of WW2.
Famous feminist authors (e.g. Simone de Beauvoir and the 'Second Sex').
The equal rights movement began, focussing on legal equality in the workplace and
contraceptive rights.
1967 - Abortion Act.
1970 - Equal Pay Act.
1975 - Sex Discrimination Act.
Theory
Consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories:
Consensus theories -:
Individuals are socialised into a value consensus i.e. an agreement about the norms and values
of society.
This ensures social order.
Conflict theories -:
Society is based on conflict.
Individuals are socialised into accepting an unfair, oppressive economic system.
Structural theories -:
Macro-sociology, taking a top-down approach (objective).
Individuals are the puppets of society.
Behaviour is shaped, moulded and constrained by social institutions and structures i.e. values
and norms to perform certain functions.
Institutions have their own specialised functions: structural differentiation.
Social action theories -:
Micro-sociology, taking a bottom-up approach (subjective).
People possess agency (free will and choice to form their own identities).
Behaviour is driven by meanings, feelings and emotions people give to situations.
Society is created through social action.
Functionalism - Structural consensus theory of modernity.
Society is more powerful than individuals, determining individual behaviour through the process
of socialisation.
Every institution has a positive function and is indispensable (central/necessary to the whole)
and interdependent (relies on others).
Any institution without function will eventually disappear; it has no use.
Emile Durkheim - The founding father of functionalism in the 19th century, who had the aim of
explaining how social order is possible:
1. Socialisation - the process of learning norms and values, making us the 'puppets of society'.
2. Interaction.
3. Value consensus - an agreement about what is important and what is not in society.
4. Solidarity - a group commitment to one another.
5. Strong collective conscience (which ultimately means social stability is achieved).
Organic analogy - The comparison of how society works to a living organism:
Each part is indispensable.
Each part is interdependent.
Each part can get 'sick' or dysfunctional. This leads to a state of anomie (normlessness).
Each part can evolve and change over time.
Both have essential needs (AGIL).
,Talcott Parsons - Believed in two processes which mean that social life becomes shared, predictable and
co-operative:
1. Socialisation - internalising society's norms.
2. Social control - society's values being strengthened/re-affirmed formally (e.g. courts, police,
prisons etc.) and informally (e.g. education, family, religion etc.).
AGIL - Parsons identified 'functional prerequisites' (basic needs):
Adaptation - meeting material needs (e.g. the economy and political system).
Goal attainment - setting and achieving goals (e.g. the economy and political system).
Integration - all parts working together (e.g. education, media, religion).
Latency - socialisation and ensuring tension management (e.g. education, family, religion).
Strengths of Functionalism:
Explains how society works as a whole.
Explains how societies evolve and adapt.
Explains how social order is possible.
Explains different functions of institutions and roles of individuals.
Internal criticisms of Functionalism (Robert Merton*):
It assumes indispensability - not all institutions are indispensable. For example, jobs can be
performed in different ways, with other functional alternatives such as civil religion in the USA
or primary socialisation being performed by a number of family types (not just the nuclear).
It assumes functional unity i.e. interdependence - Parsons assumes institutions need to work
together and that there will be a knock-on effect if one part changes. However, Merton argues
that some institutions have functional autonomy and that they are not all interrelated. For
example, society would not necessarily collapse if the nuclear family went.
It assumes universal functionalism i.e. positive functions - Parsons assumes that every part of
society performs positive functions for society as a whole. However, Merton argues that some
aspects of society may be dysfunctional for certain groups, developed by conflict perspectives.
For example, the dark side of the family.
External criticisms of Functionalism:
Conflict criticism - ignores power, inequality and conflict in society which is not based on
consensus but instead exploitation and division. For example, class conflict and patriarchy.
Social action criticism - too deterministic, taking an over-socialised view of individuals who are
said to have no free will or choice. Social action theorists would argue that individuals create
society through their interactions.
Postmodern criticism - out of date theory which tries to explain social structures which are now
fragmenting (e.g. class, gender, religion etc.) and having much less influence of people's lives.
Functionalism is therefore obsolete.
*Robert Merton - Also distinguishes between 2 types of functions (useful for research):
1. Manifest function - the function the individual is aware of.
2. Latent function - the function that is 'hidden' or unknown to the individual. This one is GOOD for
society.
Classic Marxism - Structural conflict theory of modernity.
Structural theory because it believes society is more powerful than the individual.
Conflict theory because it argues that that society is built on conflict (between the most
powerful bourgeoise who own the means of production and the least powerful proletariat who
own nothing but their labour power).
, The proletariat accept their powerlessness because they have been socialised into the idea that
inequality is normal (a false class consciousness). This prevents a revolt, and so they are
exploited and oppressed by the bourgeoise.
All institutions in society exist to benefit and serve the needs of the capitalists/economy. These
are called the Ideological State Apparatus because they control people's minds through
socialisation.
Marxists want a revolt and for communism to replace capitalism.
Historical materialism:
Humans have basic needs which must be fulfilled.
Therefore, the means of production (labour power, factories, land, machinery) and the social
relations of production (people to organise production) are needed.
As society progresses, so does the social relations, which gives rise to two classes: one that owns
the means of production (bourgeoise) and one that owns their labour power (proletariat).
Together, the means of production and the social relations of production create the mode of
production.
This shapes the economic base of society and determines all other institutions in society.
Class society and exploitation:
Primitive communism is the earliest type of society described by Marx.
Here there is no private ownership and no exploitation: a classless society.
However, as the social relations change, classes emerge.
The bourgeoise can produce and control a surplus, which allows them to exploit the proletariat,
whilst also allowing them to survive. 3 successive class societies followed:
1. Ancient society - based on the exploitation of slaves legally tied to their owners.
2. Feudal society - based on the exploitation of serfs legally tied to the land.
3. Capitalist society - based on the exploitation of free wage labourers.
Capitalism:
This is an unfair economic system whereby the class who own the means of production are
known as the bourgeoise and those who own their labour power are known as the proletariat.
Capitalism is distinctive from both ancient and feudal society for 3 main reasons:
1. The proletariat are legally free from the means of production and have to sell their labour power
to survive.
2. Ownership of the means of production becomes more concentrated in fewer hands, leading to
giant multinational companies, increased competition and small independent producers
becoming proletarianised.
3. The means of production are expanded to make more profit, production becomes ever-larger
and new technology leads to de-skilling of the workforce (automation).
Ideology:
Marx says that the bourgeoise also own the means of mental production (ideas).
This dominant class also has dominant ideas, which must be accepted by the proletariat.
The Ideological State Apparatus (institutions that spread these ideas) create a false class
consciousness that maintains inequality and perpetuate capitalist ideology.
Class consciousness:
Marx thought capitalism sowed the seeds of its own destruction.
Forcing the working class into ever-larger numbers and driving down their wages/skill would
cause them to develop an awareness of their exploitation.
Therefore, Marx thought that the proletariat would become a class in itself, become class
conscious and then overthrow capitalism through a revolution.
,Alienation:
This is a lack of power and control in the production process; it reaches its peak in a capitalist
society for 2 reasons:
1. Workers are completely separated from and have no control over the forces of production.
2. The division of labour is at its most intense and detailed: the worker is reduced to an unskilled
labourer mindlessly repeating a meaningless task.
Revolution:
Marx hoped that a proletariat majority revolution against a bourgeoise minority would:
1. Abolish the state and create a classless, communist society.
2. Abolish exploitation and replace private ownership with social ownership.
3. End alienation as humans regain control of their labour and its products.
The Superstructure:
The economy is the base of society - the infrastructure. It involves the production of a surplus
for profit and underpins other Marxist notions including the means of production (land,
machines, factories) and relations of production (people).
The rest are ISAs, which control people's minds. They all maintain a false class consciousness
and produce/spread the dominant ideology. For example:
1. The family - ensures inheritance and tension management.
2. Education system - provides the hidden curriculum and reproduces the workforce.
3. The media - drip feeds scandal and gossip to divert our attention.
4. Religion - comfort and morality.
5. Legal system - produces and defends laws that protect the interests of the dominant class and
protect private property.
Economic determinism - The idea that the economy is the dominant institution and determines
everything in society (one-way causality).
Strengths of Classic Marxism:
Highly influential theory - provides an understanding of how society can be improved and raises
public awareness.
Provides us with an understanding of economic determinism.
Criticisms of Classic Marxism:
Simplistic view of inequality i.e. based on class, thereby ignoring gender and ethnicity.
Two-class model is also simplistic. Weber divides the proletariat into skilled and unskilled,
including a middle class who are petty capitalists and professionals (e.g. doctors, nurses,
lawyers, teachers etc.).
No revolution criticism - Marx predicted that the most advanced capitalist societies would revolt
- the only Marxist-led revolution was in Russia (1917).
Neo-Marxism - Explains society differently to Marx and deals with criticisms/weaknesses of classic
Marxism.
Humanistic Marxism (Antonio Gramsci) - Combines Marxism and social action theories, explaining the
'no revolution' criticism of Marx, who is said to have under-estimated the power of ideology in a
capitalist society.
Consent - justifies ruling class power (e.g. education, the family etc.).
Coercion - persuades individuals to be obedient (e.g. army, police, courts, prisons etc.).
The ruling class are the minority and the proletariat have a 'dual consciousness' - they are
influence by ruling class ideology but also see their poor material conditions, so to some extent
can see through the dominant ideology.
, Ruling class ideology may be undermined; however, a revolution can only occur if the proletariat
construct a counter hegemonic bloc (a real, working alternative in leading society) and by
organic intellectuals (class conscious workers united into a revolutionary political party).
Hegemony - How the ruling class maintain their power through the consent of the subordinate class.
Structuralist Marxism (Louis Althusser) - Rejects humanistic Marxism and the free will of individuals,
focussing more on the power of social structure.
Althusser disagreed with Marx's infrastructure/superstructure model because he rejected the
notion that the economy is determined by all institutions and that they supported the economy
- he favours structural determinism over economic determinism.
There is two-way causality because the economy can affect what happens in each the
ideological level and the political level, but they can also affect what is happening in the
economy; each level has relative autonomy (some independence) from the economy:
1. The ideological level: Ideological State Apparatus - the way the people are manipulated to
accept society (e.g. the family, education etc.).
2. The political level: Repressive State Apparatus - all forms of organisation (e.g. the government,
political parties, laws etc.).
3. The economy.
Three story house analogy (Ian Craib 1992) - Illustrates Althusser's ideas of relative autonomy and two-
way causality.
1. Top floor - family will be shaped by the shop but also has its own dynamics. It might also shape
the shop i.e. through a divorce.
2. The office - organised in different ways regardless of the shop activity and might be organised in
the same way regardless of the nature of the shop.
3. The shop - how well the business is going affects the nature of work in the office and family life
i.e. being able to afford a holiday.
Feminism - Structural conflict theory of modernity.
First Wave (early 20th century):
Focused on raising women's consciousness of equality and gaining equality in voting and
property rights.
Suffragette movement - vote granted to some women in 1918 and full equality gained in 1928.
Marie Stopes campaigned for birth control rights and founded the first birth control clinic (use of
cervical cap) in 1918.
Mary Wollstoncraft (1992) - Author of two famous books advocating the social, moral and sexual
equality of the sexes.
Second Wave (mid-late 20th century):
Women felt frustrated and deflated when they returned to the housewife/mother role after the
end of WW2.
Famous feminist authors (e.g. Simone de Beauvoir and the 'Second Sex').
The equal rights movement began, focussing on legal equality in the workplace and
contraceptive rights.
1967 - Abortion Act.
1970 - Equal Pay Act.
1975 - Sex Discrimination Act.
