Functionalist theories of religion
1. Social integration and collective conscience.
- Durkheim believes that religion provides people with a collective conscience that
promotes a shared sense of values, within religious groups, which promotes a sense of
belonging to the group, known as social integration.
- Durkheim argued that for social integration to take place, religion must not be an
individual thing, but individuals should worship as a group.
- One way to do this is through having a sacred symbol that holds great power, and
individuals are able to worship it.
- Sacred symbols, despite varying from religion to religion, perform the essential function
of uniting believers into one shared community, due to the power that they hold, and
thus facilitating social integration.
- When worshipping their sacred symbol, in reality they are worshipping society, and
embracing the fact that individuals are being united into one shared community.
- Arunda - totenism
- Evaluation: Mestrovic (PM) argues that Durkheim’s ideas cannot be applied to modern
society, as increasing diversity has fragmented collective conscience so there is no longer
a single shared value system for religion to reinforce.
2. Malinowski argues that religion promotes social solidarity through performing psychological
functions for individuals:
- These PF can be where the outcome of the event is important but is uncontrollable and
thus uncertain.
- At times during life crisis
- Eg at war, religion can unite people into shared values/beliefs
- Malinowski argues that death is the main reason as to why religion exists. Eg funerals
people unite which reinforces solidarity between the individuals.
- Evaluation: Hamilton argues religion has dysfunctions, such as creating conflict and
rational thought, and this is perhaps why there is a need for religion to perform
psychological functions, because of the conflict that religion has already caused.
3. Parson’s believes religion acts as an agent of socialization.
- As religion creates and legitimizes societies basic norms and values by sacralizing them,
religion therefore teaches its followers the norms and values of society.
- EG. In America, Protestantism has sacralized the key America values of individualism,
meritocracy, and self-discipline which promote value consensus and thus social
solidarity.
- Parson’s argues that sacred texts elevate the values of religion into sacred moral codes.
- Eg 10 commandments generally underpin UK law and culture. 10C form of social control.
- Evaluation: Not all in UK follow 10 commandments, therefore society is fragmented with
no value consensus – nothing to say that all abide by the 10 commandments.
Marxist theories on religion
1. Marxists believe that religion is a feature of a class divided society, and that religion wouldn’t
be necessary in a classless society.
- Marx sees religion as a belief system that distorts people’s perception of reality.
- In doing so, religion acts as a psychological weapon for the R/C which justifies the
suffering of the poor to be an inevitable part of society and something that is ‘god given’.
, - Religion misleads the poor into believing that their suffering is virtuous and that they will
be favored in the afterlife. – these ideas create a ‘false consciousness’.
- A false consciousness is a distorted view of reality that prevents people, typically the
poor, from taking action to overcome the R/C.
- Norris and Inglehart found that the most vulnerable people are likely to turn to religion
as they see it as a source of comfort, thus proving the false consciousness that religion
can offer to people.
- Lenin adds that religion is a spiritual gin that is dolled out by R/C to the masses that
justifies their suffering, and keeps them in their place.
- Marx also argues that religion acts as an opiate to dull the pain of exploitation, and as
opiates mask the issue, rather than do anything to change it, religion is able to mask the
problem than do anything to change it. – Religion rises out of suffering (exploitation) and
does nothing to change it (masks the real issue = inequality)
- Evaluation: Functionalists – ignores the positive functions of religion (Malinowski –
psychological functions)
Feminist theories on religion
1. Feminists believe places of worship/religious organizations function as patriarchal ideology
that legitimates women’s subordination.
- Religious organizations are typically male dominated, despite more women participating
in religion – Brierly: Female churchgoers outnumber men by nearly half a million.
- However, Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women from becoming priests which
Amstrong sees as a reason for women’s marginalization.
- Armstrong argues that churches often have a ‘stained glass ceiling’ that prevents women
from progressing to the top of the hierarchy.
- Places of worship also often segregate sex and marginalize women eg Women put
behind screens and men in more sacred places.
- In Islam, women are also not allowed to touch the Qur’an, which Holm describes as the
devaluation of women in religion.
- Evaluation: El Saadawi argues that Islam isn’t patriarchal in nature, but the male
domination of Arab cultural institutions has led to Islam’s role in maintaining gender
inequality. Arab men hold the powerful positions and are able to use this cultural power
to dominate the interpretation of Islamic texts.
2. Traditional laws and customs in religion also undermine women.
- Sacred texts often feature the wrongdoing of females, eg Adam and Eve.
- Divorce is also not encouraged by Christians for example which gives women less
opportunities if they are suffering from DV eg.
- The catholic church also bans abortion and contraception.
- Evaluation: Armstrong that women having always been subordinate to men in religion,
and early religions often placed women at the center, however the introduction of all
powerful male God’s have led to women being subordinated.
Criticisms of religion being feminist
1. Woodhead criticizes feminist explanations that simply equating religion with patriarchy and
women’s oppression.
- Whilst Woodhead accepts that some religion is patriarchal, this is not true for all.
, - There are religious forms of feminism, ways in which women can use religion to gain
greater freedom or respect.
- Brusco: Found that belonging to religion can empower some women in Pentecostal
religions eg in Colombia. Women are able to use their religion to increase power and
influence, gaining respect from males around them.
- Muslim women wearing a veil is viewed rather negatively by many Western feminists
and seen as a way in which women are oppressed, however for them, it is a symbol of
liberation.
- Gillait-Raey: Young British women often wore the hijab to gain parental approval to enter
further education and employment. For them the hijab is a symbol of liberation that
allows them to enter the public sphere without being condemned.
- Evaluation: Holm: Menstruating women not allowed to touch the Qur’an which is proof
of the devaluation of women in religion.
Religion as a conservative force – Conservatives, Marxists, Feminists.
- Religion can be conservative as it functions to preserve things as they are. Helping to
stabilize society and maintain the status quo.
- Religion can be conservative as it presents social change. (Marxists)
- Facilitates the existing society.
1. Functionalists see religion as a conservative force as it functions to maintain social stability
and prevent society from disintegrating.
- Durheim – social integration – social solidarity
- Parsons – responsible for primary socialization
2. Marxists see religion as an ideology that prevents social change, eg legitimizes and disguises
exploitation and alienation within the workplace.
- Marx + Lenin theories
3. Feminists see religion as a conservative force as it acts as an ideology that legitimates the
patriarchal structure.
- Women cannot be priests
- Biblical texts eg Adam and Eve – women are wrongdoers.
Religion as force for change
1. Weber: Religion helped modern capitalism to emerge.
- The beliefs of Calvinism in the 16/17th brought major social change.
- Modern capitalism is based on rational pursuit of profit
- Calvinists have several beliefs: Predestination, vocation – being called by God. Calvinism
introduced the idea of this-worldly asceticism, the idea that the bible revealed that we
were put on Earth to glorify God’s name through work. This meant more Calvinists
worked long hours in an occupation, having consequences:
- Their wealth and success performed a psychological function, allowing them to cope
with their salvation panic. (Calvinistic belief)
- Driven by their work ethic, they methodically accumulated wealth by the most rational
means possible, and thus made more and more money, therefore bringing capitalism.
- Ao3: Weber compares how capitalism took off in UK to China and India. It is argued that
these countries failed due to the lack of a religious belief system that would have spurred
its development.
1. Social integration and collective conscience.
- Durkheim believes that religion provides people with a collective conscience that
promotes a shared sense of values, within religious groups, which promotes a sense of
belonging to the group, known as social integration.
- Durkheim argued that for social integration to take place, religion must not be an
individual thing, but individuals should worship as a group.
- One way to do this is through having a sacred symbol that holds great power, and
individuals are able to worship it.
- Sacred symbols, despite varying from religion to religion, perform the essential function
of uniting believers into one shared community, due to the power that they hold, and
thus facilitating social integration.
- When worshipping their sacred symbol, in reality they are worshipping society, and
embracing the fact that individuals are being united into one shared community.
- Arunda - totenism
- Evaluation: Mestrovic (PM) argues that Durkheim’s ideas cannot be applied to modern
society, as increasing diversity has fragmented collective conscience so there is no longer
a single shared value system for religion to reinforce.
2. Malinowski argues that religion promotes social solidarity through performing psychological
functions for individuals:
- These PF can be where the outcome of the event is important but is uncontrollable and
thus uncertain.
- At times during life crisis
- Eg at war, religion can unite people into shared values/beliefs
- Malinowski argues that death is the main reason as to why religion exists. Eg funerals
people unite which reinforces solidarity between the individuals.
- Evaluation: Hamilton argues religion has dysfunctions, such as creating conflict and
rational thought, and this is perhaps why there is a need for religion to perform
psychological functions, because of the conflict that religion has already caused.
3. Parson’s believes religion acts as an agent of socialization.
- As religion creates and legitimizes societies basic norms and values by sacralizing them,
religion therefore teaches its followers the norms and values of society.
- EG. In America, Protestantism has sacralized the key America values of individualism,
meritocracy, and self-discipline which promote value consensus and thus social
solidarity.
- Parson’s argues that sacred texts elevate the values of religion into sacred moral codes.
- Eg 10 commandments generally underpin UK law and culture. 10C form of social control.
- Evaluation: Not all in UK follow 10 commandments, therefore society is fragmented with
no value consensus – nothing to say that all abide by the 10 commandments.
Marxist theories on religion
1. Marxists believe that religion is a feature of a class divided society, and that religion wouldn’t
be necessary in a classless society.
- Marx sees religion as a belief system that distorts people’s perception of reality.
- In doing so, religion acts as a psychological weapon for the R/C which justifies the
suffering of the poor to be an inevitable part of society and something that is ‘god given’.
, - Religion misleads the poor into believing that their suffering is virtuous and that they will
be favored in the afterlife. – these ideas create a ‘false consciousness’.
- A false consciousness is a distorted view of reality that prevents people, typically the
poor, from taking action to overcome the R/C.
- Norris and Inglehart found that the most vulnerable people are likely to turn to religion
as they see it as a source of comfort, thus proving the false consciousness that religion
can offer to people.
- Lenin adds that religion is a spiritual gin that is dolled out by R/C to the masses that
justifies their suffering, and keeps them in their place.
- Marx also argues that religion acts as an opiate to dull the pain of exploitation, and as
opiates mask the issue, rather than do anything to change it, religion is able to mask the
problem than do anything to change it. – Religion rises out of suffering (exploitation) and
does nothing to change it (masks the real issue = inequality)
- Evaluation: Functionalists – ignores the positive functions of religion (Malinowski –
psychological functions)
Feminist theories on religion
1. Feminists believe places of worship/religious organizations function as patriarchal ideology
that legitimates women’s subordination.
- Religious organizations are typically male dominated, despite more women participating
in religion – Brierly: Female churchgoers outnumber men by nearly half a million.
- However, Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women from becoming priests which
Amstrong sees as a reason for women’s marginalization.
- Armstrong argues that churches often have a ‘stained glass ceiling’ that prevents women
from progressing to the top of the hierarchy.
- Places of worship also often segregate sex and marginalize women eg Women put
behind screens and men in more sacred places.
- In Islam, women are also not allowed to touch the Qur’an, which Holm describes as the
devaluation of women in religion.
- Evaluation: El Saadawi argues that Islam isn’t patriarchal in nature, but the male
domination of Arab cultural institutions has led to Islam’s role in maintaining gender
inequality. Arab men hold the powerful positions and are able to use this cultural power
to dominate the interpretation of Islamic texts.
2. Traditional laws and customs in religion also undermine women.
- Sacred texts often feature the wrongdoing of females, eg Adam and Eve.
- Divorce is also not encouraged by Christians for example which gives women less
opportunities if they are suffering from DV eg.
- The catholic church also bans abortion and contraception.
- Evaluation: Armstrong that women having always been subordinate to men in religion,
and early religions often placed women at the center, however the introduction of all
powerful male God’s have led to women being subordinated.
Criticisms of religion being feminist
1. Woodhead criticizes feminist explanations that simply equating religion with patriarchy and
women’s oppression.
- Whilst Woodhead accepts that some religion is patriarchal, this is not true for all.
, - There are religious forms of feminism, ways in which women can use religion to gain
greater freedom or respect.
- Brusco: Found that belonging to religion can empower some women in Pentecostal
religions eg in Colombia. Women are able to use their religion to increase power and
influence, gaining respect from males around them.
- Muslim women wearing a veil is viewed rather negatively by many Western feminists
and seen as a way in which women are oppressed, however for them, it is a symbol of
liberation.
- Gillait-Raey: Young British women often wore the hijab to gain parental approval to enter
further education and employment. For them the hijab is a symbol of liberation that
allows them to enter the public sphere without being condemned.
- Evaluation: Holm: Menstruating women not allowed to touch the Qur’an which is proof
of the devaluation of women in religion.
Religion as a conservative force – Conservatives, Marxists, Feminists.
- Religion can be conservative as it functions to preserve things as they are. Helping to
stabilize society and maintain the status quo.
- Religion can be conservative as it presents social change. (Marxists)
- Facilitates the existing society.
1. Functionalists see religion as a conservative force as it functions to maintain social stability
and prevent society from disintegrating.
- Durheim – social integration – social solidarity
- Parsons – responsible for primary socialization
2. Marxists see religion as an ideology that prevents social change, eg legitimizes and disguises
exploitation and alienation within the workplace.
- Marx + Lenin theories
3. Feminists see religion as a conservative force as it acts as an ideology that legitimates the
patriarchal structure.
- Women cannot be priests
- Biblical texts eg Adam and Eve – women are wrongdoers.
Religion as force for change
1. Weber: Religion helped modern capitalism to emerge.
- The beliefs of Calvinism in the 16/17th brought major social change.
- Modern capitalism is based on rational pursuit of profit
- Calvinists have several beliefs: Predestination, vocation – being called by God. Calvinism
introduced the idea of this-worldly asceticism, the idea that the bible revealed that we
were put on Earth to glorify God’s name through work. This meant more Calvinists
worked long hours in an occupation, having consequences:
- Their wealth and success performed a psychological function, allowing them to cope
with their salvation panic. (Calvinistic belief)
- Driven by their work ethic, they methodically accumulated wealth by the most rational
means possible, and thus made more and more money, therefore bringing capitalism.
- Ao3: Weber compares how capitalism took off in UK to China and India. It is argued that
these countries failed due to the lack of a religious belief system that would have spurred
its development.
