Gender Unit – Summary Notes:
Definitions:
Sex relates to whether individuals are biologically male or female; determined
by chromosomes – XX = female, XY = male.
Gender refers to social and psychological characteristics and includes how
masculine/feminine people are in attitudes and behaviour. Gender is flexible and
can change, sex cannot.
Androgyny implies displaying roughly equal levels of masculine/feminine traits.
Bem’s Sex Role Inventory:
Anyone can have both masculine and feminine traits. 50 males and females
rated 200 traits for how desirable they were for men and women – 20 male traits,
20 female trats and 20 neutral traits selected. Male = ambition, aggression etc.
Female = warmth, sympathy etc. Rate 1-7 on each trait. 34% male and 27%
female were androgynous.
Valid and reliable. Tested on 1000+ students, valid when checked against own
description of gender identity; smaller sample tested later = reliable.
Unrepresentative as students alone aren’t generalisable. Masc/fem scores are
over-simplistic; contemporary approached measure behaviours, interests and
abilities. Self-report method may lack validity, requires personal insight and self-
awareness so may give socially desirable answers.
Bem sees androgyny as psychologically healthier. Adopt behaviours and show
different cognitive styles when necessary.
Sex-role stereotypes are a set of beliefs that people hold about what is
appropriate for males/females. Learnt from birth as children are exposed to
societal expectations about how boys/girls should behave.
Baby X – Smith & Lloyd: Adults observed interacting with children either
dressed as boys/girls. Boy = physically active and ‘boys’ toys, e.g. hammer. Girl
= held closer + dolls.
Williams & Best: 30 countries, university students, 300 adjectives associated
with men/women/both. High agreement. Cultural variations, e.g. Protestant vs
Catholic. 25 countries, 5+8yr olds. 5 = beginning of adult stereotypes (Pakistan
> Brazil), increase in stereotypes with age across cultures. Males = active, stern,
confident. Females = affectionate, shy, warm.
The Biological Explanation:
Gender is determined by sex. Evolutionary theory predicts males/females have
evolved different roles in reproduction with females being caring and males
providing. Evolved different chromosomes that trigger different levels of certain
hormones which impact our gender behaviour. Chromosomes: 23 pairs, 23 rd pair
are different and are determined at conception.
Testosterone: Leads to development of male genitalia, facial hair and
deepening voice.
, Oestrogen: Group of steroid hormones, regulate ovarian function and
menstruation – breast growth and hip widening.
Oxytocin: ‘Love hormone’, facilitates childbirth and breast-feeding.
Testosterone:
Spatial skills and aggression. Sexual dimorphic nucleus = bigger. Gorski et al
injected female rats with testosterone prior to birth, developed ambiguous
genitalia, attempted to mount females. Van der pol testosterone leads to
increased aggression; male and female rats – castrated males showed less
aggression. Money & Ehrhardt mums taking drugs containing testosterone had
daughters who displayed male behaviours; CAH = higher levels of prenatal
testosterone. Midgeley et al men taking steroids = higher aggression scores.
Oestrogen:
Fluctuating levels = PMS. Increased emotion, irritability and irrational behaviour.
Enhanced verbal ability. Sherwin – administering oestrogens shortly after
menopause prevents decrease in verbal memory. Low and fluctuating = mood
lowering. Restoring levels = recovery from postpartum, perimenopause and post-
menopause depression.
Oxytocin:
Promotes feelings of bonding, release during amorous activities. Bonding
between mum and infant, levels after birth and breast feeding. Van Leengoed
et al injecting rats shortly after birth causes mum delay in maternal behaviour,
when antagonist wore off normal maternal behaviour returned. Feldman et al –
levels in pregnant women during 1st, 3rd and 4th trimester; higher in 1st = better
bonding, high throughout = exclusive relationship, e.g. special songs, feeding in
specific ways.
Too simplistic; all 3 have influences on both sexes, e.g. testosterone = sex drive
and oxytocin = bonding. Reductionist; complex gender behaviour reduced to
chemicals and cells, neglects environments and cultural differences. Difficult to
demonstrate cause and effect, unethical to manipulate. Research is correlational
and can’t generalise from animals to humans. Deterministic, no free will in
gender behaviour, assumes males will be masculine etc (link to Bem results).
Alexander & Hines: vervet monkeys show same gender preferences of toys as
humans, e.g. male car and female doll.
David Reimer: raised as a girl but felt male; hormones more powerful than
socialisation.
Klinefelter’s and Turners – systematic differences in behaviour, chromosomes
directly influence behaviour.
Turners: Female = X0 – second X chromosome missing/incomplete. Short
webbed neck, no breasts, lack of menstruation, higher verbal ability, abnormal
heart and kidney function, bad maths skills, poor social adjustment. 1/3 typical
puberty changes, 1/200 natural pregnancy. Growth hormone and oestrogen and
progesterone, slightly reduced lifespan.
Definitions:
Sex relates to whether individuals are biologically male or female; determined
by chromosomes – XX = female, XY = male.
Gender refers to social and psychological characteristics and includes how
masculine/feminine people are in attitudes and behaviour. Gender is flexible and
can change, sex cannot.
Androgyny implies displaying roughly equal levels of masculine/feminine traits.
Bem’s Sex Role Inventory:
Anyone can have both masculine and feminine traits. 50 males and females
rated 200 traits for how desirable they were for men and women – 20 male traits,
20 female trats and 20 neutral traits selected. Male = ambition, aggression etc.
Female = warmth, sympathy etc. Rate 1-7 on each trait. 34% male and 27%
female were androgynous.
Valid and reliable. Tested on 1000+ students, valid when checked against own
description of gender identity; smaller sample tested later = reliable.
Unrepresentative as students alone aren’t generalisable. Masc/fem scores are
over-simplistic; contemporary approached measure behaviours, interests and
abilities. Self-report method may lack validity, requires personal insight and self-
awareness so may give socially desirable answers.
Bem sees androgyny as psychologically healthier. Adopt behaviours and show
different cognitive styles when necessary.
Sex-role stereotypes are a set of beliefs that people hold about what is
appropriate for males/females. Learnt from birth as children are exposed to
societal expectations about how boys/girls should behave.
Baby X – Smith & Lloyd: Adults observed interacting with children either
dressed as boys/girls. Boy = physically active and ‘boys’ toys, e.g. hammer. Girl
= held closer + dolls.
Williams & Best: 30 countries, university students, 300 adjectives associated
with men/women/both. High agreement. Cultural variations, e.g. Protestant vs
Catholic. 25 countries, 5+8yr olds. 5 = beginning of adult stereotypes (Pakistan
> Brazil), increase in stereotypes with age across cultures. Males = active, stern,
confident. Females = affectionate, shy, warm.
The Biological Explanation:
Gender is determined by sex. Evolutionary theory predicts males/females have
evolved different roles in reproduction with females being caring and males
providing. Evolved different chromosomes that trigger different levels of certain
hormones which impact our gender behaviour. Chromosomes: 23 pairs, 23 rd pair
are different and are determined at conception.
Testosterone: Leads to development of male genitalia, facial hair and
deepening voice.
, Oestrogen: Group of steroid hormones, regulate ovarian function and
menstruation – breast growth and hip widening.
Oxytocin: ‘Love hormone’, facilitates childbirth and breast-feeding.
Testosterone:
Spatial skills and aggression. Sexual dimorphic nucleus = bigger. Gorski et al
injected female rats with testosterone prior to birth, developed ambiguous
genitalia, attempted to mount females. Van der pol testosterone leads to
increased aggression; male and female rats – castrated males showed less
aggression. Money & Ehrhardt mums taking drugs containing testosterone had
daughters who displayed male behaviours; CAH = higher levels of prenatal
testosterone. Midgeley et al men taking steroids = higher aggression scores.
Oestrogen:
Fluctuating levels = PMS. Increased emotion, irritability and irrational behaviour.
Enhanced verbal ability. Sherwin – administering oestrogens shortly after
menopause prevents decrease in verbal memory. Low and fluctuating = mood
lowering. Restoring levels = recovery from postpartum, perimenopause and post-
menopause depression.
Oxytocin:
Promotes feelings of bonding, release during amorous activities. Bonding
between mum and infant, levels after birth and breast feeding. Van Leengoed
et al injecting rats shortly after birth causes mum delay in maternal behaviour,
when antagonist wore off normal maternal behaviour returned. Feldman et al –
levels in pregnant women during 1st, 3rd and 4th trimester; higher in 1st = better
bonding, high throughout = exclusive relationship, e.g. special songs, feeding in
specific ways.
Too simplistic; all 3 have influences on both sexes, e.g. testosterone = sex drive
and oxytocin = bonding. Reductionist; complex gender behaviour reduced to
chemicals and cells, neglects environments and cultural differences. Difficult to
demonstrate cause and effect, unethical to manipulate. Research is correlational
and can’t generalise from animals to humans. Deterministic, no free will in
gender behaviour, assumes males will be masculine etc (link to Bem results).
Alexander & Hines: vervet monkeys show same gender preferences of toys as
humans, e.g. male car and female doll.
David Reimer: raised as a girl but felt male; hormones more powerful than
socialisation.
Klinefelter’s and Turners – systematic differences in behaviour, chromosomes
directly influence behaviour.
Turners: Female = X0 – second X chromosome missing/incomplete. Short
webbed neck, no breasts, lack of menstruation, higher verbal ability, abnormal
heart and kidney function, bad maths skills, poor social adjustment. 1/3 typical
puberty changes, 1/200 natural pregnancy. Growth hormone and oestrogen and
progesterone, slightly reduced lifespan.
