Clinical Psychology |
Thursday, 5 February 2026 8:52 am
8 marker: Discuss and evaluate statistical infrequency as a definition of
abnormality.
PEELD: Strength
One strength of statistical infrequency is that it has clear real-world application in clinical assessment.
For example, the use of IQ scores allows clinicians to decide that individuals scoring below 70, fall within
the lowest 2-3% of the population, which is helpful for diagnosing intellectual disability disorder. As an
assessment tool, the Beck Depression Inventory reflects a wide interpretation of a score of 30+ (top 5%
of respondents) indicating severe depression. This shows that the definition helps identify when
behaviour is sufficiently unusual to warrant concern, through objective numerical norms. Therefore, it
remains a valuable diagnostic tool because it contributes to more standardised, consistent clinical
judgments across practitioners. However, statistical infrequency would not recognise depression as a
mental health disorder. Depression is estimated to affect around 280 million people across the world at
any given time. The high prevalence rate of depression means that it is not statistically deviant.
Therefore, statistical infrequency is not a completely valid definition of mental health and may have a
limited usefulness because it would fail to classify common but harmful condition as abnormal.
PEEL: Weakness
One limitation of statistical infrequency is that some rare behaviours are desirable and not adverse.
For example, having an IQ of 130 is statistically rare but not undesirable or limiting in the same ways as a
low IQ which is also statistically rare would be. Mozart was said to have an IQ of between 150 and 165.
His IQ was statistically rare but not problematic for him and he managed to massively contribute to the
musical world. This shows that the definition of abnormality classifies all rare behaviours under a
problematic viewpoint. Presenting rare behaviours as undesirable. Therefore, the definition may be
limited in the usefulness and accuracy of what it tells us about rare or abnormal behaviour. It should
represent rare and undesirable behaviours separately.
8 marker: Discuss and evaluate deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality.
PEELD: Strength
One strength of Jahoda's definition is that it is considered a positive and more holistic approach. It provides an alternative
perspective, focusing on desirable behaviours and on the person as a whole, taking into account a multitude of factors that
can affect an individual's mental health and wellbeing. The criteria has also had some influence on and is in accord with the
'positive psychology' movement forming a part of humanistic approaches. This shows that mental health can be viewed in a
more rounded and aspirational way. Therefore, the definition offers a comprehensive approach, covering a broad range of
criteria and encourages clinicians to consider multiple aspects of wellbeing rather than relying on a narrow diagnostic criteria.
However, Jahoda's criteria wasn't widely adopted by mental health professionals. Her criteria for perfect psychological
functioning is proved difficult to achieve all at once and isn't sustainable, making the criteria impractical for diagnosing mental
health disorders.
PEEL: Weakness
One weakness of the definition is that it may be culture-bound. Some of Jahoda's criteria has been found to be ethnocentric. PEEL: Weakness
For example, her emphasis personal growth, development and self-actualization may be considered overly self-centered in Another weakness is that some of her criteria is subjective and lacks clarity. At times, everyone will
other countries and particularly collectivist cultures such as China. This shows that her criteria may be more popular in experience stress, for example, following the death of a loved one. Additionally, small amounts of stress
individualist cultures such as the UK which further suggests that it may have only been designed with American and European can be beneficial in helping us to sharpen focus and cope with challenges. Under the definition, even
cultures in mind. Therefore, it may not be appropriate to generalise her definition to most cultures and it should only be these normal reactions would classify an individual as 'abnormal'. Therefore, the definition fails to
considered a definition in individualist cultures as to avoid incorrect diagnoses. consider the extent at which each criteria becomes abnormal. The definition should also clarify how
many need to be missing in order for a diagnosis to occur.
8 marker: Discuss and evaluate deviation from social/cultural norms as a definition of abnormality.
PEELD: Weakness
One weakness of the definition is that it lacks cultural relativism. Social norms differ between cultures. A behaviour may be
considered 'normal' in one country but 'abnormal' in another. For example, Cochrane (1977) found that Black Caribbean
immigrants in the UK were diagnosed with schizophrenia far more often that white British people, despite schizophrenia rates in
the Caribbean being no higher. This suggests that the definition is culturally biased and is predominantly based on western social
norms. Therefore, abnormality is not standardised with the social norms deviation definition and it may not be appropriate to
generalise it to most cultures. Furthermore, Chappell and Jeppsson (2023) highlighted the subjectivity of the definition by
suggesting that people are reassured by 'typical behaviour' and are disturbed by deviations, exhibiting love of familiar. This can
become problematic if clinicians diagnose based on their own opinions about what is normal, disregarding their patient's
judgment of their own well-being and imposing other people's standards.
PEEL: Strength
One strength of the definition is that it has real-world applications and usefulness. Whilst the definition may fail to support PEEL: Weakness
diagnoses of schizophrenia across a range of cultures, it can be used to diagnose antisocial personality disorder. A key Another weakness of the definition is that social norms change overtime which causes hindsight bias.
characteristic is failure to conform to culturally acceptable and ethical behaviour, expressing recklessness, aggression and For example, homosexuality was regarded as mental illness in the UK in 1973, often resulting in
deceitfulness. It can also influence a diagnosis of schizotypal personality disorder. Thinking of such individuals are seen as 'odd' institutionalization but now, it is simply considered a variation of normal behaviour. This means that
or 'eccentric'. This shows that the criteria accurately captures the core features of these personality disorders, demonstrating historically, reliance on deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality may have resulted in
some success in the definition when the disorder is fundamentally rooted in social deviance. Therefore, deviation from violations of human rights where people, by today's standards are deemed 'normal'. It also highlights
social/cultural norms criterion offers meaningful diagnostic usefulness in disorders whose core symptoms directly involve that such definitions can be used as a form of social control, as argued by Szasz (1974), to marginalize
violating social expectations. groups who do not conform to dominant societal expectations. Therefore, the definition lacks temporal
validity as a behaviour that is viewed as abnormal at one stage may be viewed as normal later on as
societal attitudes change.
8 marker: Discuss and evaluate deviation from failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality.
WAGOLL FFA
PEELD: Weakness Point: A strength of the failure to function adequately (FFA) definition of abnormality is that it provides an
One weakness of the definition is that it is open to abuse, due to it's subjective measures. In practice, it can be very hard to say when someone is objective method to measure and classify functioning using tools like the Global Assessment of Functioning
really failing to function and when they have simply chosen to deviate from social/cultural norms. For example, people who favour high-risk leisure (GAF) scale.
activities or people with alternative lifestyles who choose to live 'off-grid' may be at risk of being diagnosed with a mental health condition and their Evidence: For instance, a high GAF score of 81+ indicates minimal symptoms and good functioning in all
freedom of choice may be restricted. This shows that the failure to function adequately criterion heavily relies on the subjective judgment of the aspects of everyday life, whereas a low score of 0-10 suggests severe symptoms, such as suicidal thoughts or
clinician, as one person's lack of hygiene may be another person's eco-friendly refusal to use deodorant. Therefore, this challenges the validity of FFA extreme risk of harm to oneself or others.
as a definition of abnormality because its reliance on subjective judgment makes it vulnerable to inconsistent or unfair diagnoses, which is socially Explanation: This is beneficial as it offers a standardised, reliable approach to identifying individuals who are
sensitive. However, the definition also considers the subjective personal experiences of the patient which means that it is not entirely reliant on struggling, ensuring they can receive the necessary support or interventions.
external judgment. By considering the thoughts and feelings of the person experiencing the issue, the definition does not simply make a judgment D: However, the FFA definition has limitations, as some individuals may appear to function normally while
without taking the personal viewpoint of the sufferer into consideration. This suggests that it retains some validity as this helps counterbalance the still posing significant risks to others. For example, Harold Shipman, a serial killer who murdered over 200
subjectivity of clinician-led judgment and helps produce more accurate and fair assessments of their behaviour. victims while working as a doctor, did not create observer discomfort and maintained the appearance of
normal functioning.
PEEL: Strength Link: This highlights a critical flaw in the FFA definition, as it may fail to identify dangerous individuals who do
One strength of the failure to function criterion is that it represents a sensible threshold for when people need professional help. Most people show not outwardly show signs of dysfunction, reducing its validity and overall applicability in all cases.
symptoms typical of one or more mental health conditions to some degree at some time. According to the mental health charity Mind, around 25%
of people in England will experience a mental health problem in any given year. Despite this, many people press on in the face of fairly severe
symptoms. It tends to be at the point that one ceases to function adequately that they seek professional help or are noticed and referred for help by
others. This shows that the criterion can successfully identify the point at which everyday symptoms begin to disrupt a person's ability to cope,
signaling that professional support is genuinely needed. Therefore, the definition provides a meaningful distinguishment between everyday stress
and cases where intervention is genuinely necessary, ensuring clinical services remain available for those whose functioning has completely broken
down.
8 marker: Outline and evaluate the biological approach to explaining OCD through genetics. 8 marker: Outline and evaluate the biological approach to explaining OCD through neural.
PEELD: Strength PEEL: Strength
One strength of the genetic explanation for OCD is the range of strong sources that suggest some people are vulnerable to OCD One strength of the neural explanation for OCD is that there are successful treatments for reducing symptoms by
as a result of their genetic make-up. For example, Nestadt et al. (2010) reviewed twin studies and found that 68% of identical targeting serotonin. For example, by preventing serotonin from being reabsorbed and broken down in the presynaptic
(MZ) twins developed OCD as apposed to 31% of non-identical (DZ) twins. Additionally, Marini and Stebnicki (2012) found that a neuron SSRIs increase serotonin levels and thus continue to stimulate the post synaptic neuron. This allows the serotonin
person with a family member diagnosed with OCD is around four times as likely to develop it as someone without. These system to return to the usual level of functioning. This shows that when serotonin levels are increased, OCD symptoms
research studies suggest that there must be some genetic influence on the development of OCD reflecting a consistent finding of improve, reflecting a direct link between serotonin and OCD and suggests that low serotonin levels may the be cause of
OCD occurring more frequently among people who share a great proportion of their genes, suggesting that such disorders occur the disorder. Therefore, this strengthens the construct validity of the neurotransmitter explanation as it demonstrates
through genetic inheritance rather than randomly. Therefore, this strengthens the population validity of the genetic explanation that altering serotonin functioning in the neurons affects OCD symptoms, confirming that the biological mechanism does
as the wide range of research across different samples of twins and families demonstrate the clear pattern of OCD likelihood is underlie the disorder.
not limited to one specific study or group. However, OCD does not appear to be entirely genetic in origin. Environmental risk
factors can also trigger or increase the risk of developing OCD. Cromer et al. (2007) found that over half the OCD clients in their PEELD: Strength
sample had experienced a traumatic event in their past. OCD was also more severe in those with one or more traumas. This Another strength of the neural explanation for OCD is that there is supporting research. For example, Menzies et al.
means that genetic vulnerability only provides a partial explanation for OCD and that other factors such as environment play a (2007) used MRI to produce images of brain activity in OCD patients. Their brain images were compared to those of their
role and should be further investigated. immediate family members who did not have OCD and a control group of unrelated healthy people. It was found that
OCD patients and their immediate family had reduced grey matter in key regions of the brain including the OFC. This PEEL: Strength
PEEL: Strength shows that neural differences are inherited rather than caused by symptoms and that faulty brain structures may Basal Ganglia Dysfunction: Rapoport and Wise were
Another strength of the genetic explanation is that it there is evidence from animals studies that show a particular genetic predispose individuals to OCD. Therefore, this increases the validity of the neural explanation for OCD as it reflects a instrumental in proposing that OCD is related to
variation associated with repetitive behaviour. For example, Ahmari (2016) used genetically modified mice and found that when biological origin. The researchers also concluded that brain scans could be used in the future to detect risk of developing dysfunction within the basal ganglia. Their research
particular genes linked to OCD were altered, the mice began to show persistent and repetitive behaviours which mirror human OCD. However, the relationship may be a circular argument. Evidence such as Menzies et al. reflect a correlation but it is suggested that a disruption in this part of the brain is
compulsions. This shows that specific genetic manipulation can produce compulsive behaviour even in non-human species which unclear whether this is a causal factor or a result of OCD leading to changes in the brain structure. Therefore, we cannot central to the pathophysiology of the disorder,
suggests that biological mechanisms play an important role in influencing OCD. Therefore, this strengthens the genetic consider the neural explanation a complete or definitive account of the disorder. specifically the caudate nucleus
explanation as it illustrates how genetic factors can directly generate OCD symptoms and behaviours.
16 marker: Discuss drug therapy as a treatment for OCD
PEELD: Weakness
One weakness of SSRIs and SNRIs is that they cause unpleasant side effects. Common side effects PEEL: Weakness
of this treatment include gastrointestinal issues, sexual disfunction, and sleep pattern changes. A weakness of using SSRIs to treat OCD is that, although they reduce symptoms, they do not
SNRIs may additionally cause dizziness and increased blood pressure, sweating, and dry mouth. address the underlying causes of the disorder. Although SSRIs work by increasing the levels of
This shows that although these drugs can reduce OCD symptoms, they may also create new serotonin in the brain, which reduces anxiety. And alleviates the symptoms of OCD, it does not
problems that negatively affect a person's quality of life. Therefore, this weakens the usefulness of treat the underlying cognitive and behavioural processes of the mental health disorder. This is
SSRIs and SNRIs as a treatment of OCD because the potential benefits must outweigh the negative evidenced by the fact that once a patient stops taking the drug, they are prone to relapse. This
side effects, otherwise the treatment can become too difficult to tolerate for many patients, shows that drug therapy only manages the biological symptoms rather than resolving the deeper
making the treatment less suitable as a whole. Furthermore, there are alternative treatments psychological mechanisms involved in OCD.Suggestion for a patient with OCD in this case.
which have been proven to be more effective. For example, Skapinakis et al. (2016) carried out a Therefore, comment on biological reductionism/holism.
systematic review of outcome studies and concluded that both cognitive and behaviour therapies Therefore, this highlights biological reductionism, as SSRIs reduce OCD to a single
like systematic desensitisation were more effective than SSRIs in the treatment of OCD. This neurotransmitter imbalance and overlook the wider cognitive, behavioural, and environmental
means that drugs overall may not be the optimum treatment for OCD. factors involved. A more holistic approach, combining medication with psychological therapy, is
needed to fully treat the disorder.
PEEL: Strength
One strength of SSRIs and SNRIs is that they are cost-effectiveness
Drug therapies including BZs, are relatively cheaper compared to psychological treatments
Thursday, 5 February 2026 8:52 am
8 marker: Discuss and evaluate statistical infrequency as a definition of
abnormality.
PEELD: Strength
One strength of statistical infrequency is that it has clear real-world application in clinical assessment.
For example, the use of IQ scores allows clinicians to decide that individuals scoring below 70, fall within
the lowest 2-3% of the population, which is helpful for diagnosing intellectual disability disorder. As an
assessment tool, the Beck Depression Inventory reflects a wide interpretation of a score of 30+ (top 5%
of respondents) indicating severe depression. This shows that the definition helps identify when
behaviour is sufficiently unusual to warrant concern, through objective numerical norms. Therefore, it
remains a valuable diagnostic tool because it contributes to more standardised, consistent clinical
judgments across practitioners. However, statistical infrequency would not recognise depression as a
mental health disorder. Depression is estimated to affect around 280 million people across the world at
any given time. The high prevalence rate of depression means that it is not statistically deviant.
Therefore, statistical infrequency is not a completely valid definition of mental health and may have a
limited usefulness because it would fail to classify common but harmful condition as abnormal.
PEEL: Weakness
One limitation of statistical infrequency is that some rare behaviours are desirable and not adverse.
For example, having an IQ of 130 is statistically rare but not undesirable or limiting in the same ways as a
low IQ which is also statistically rare would be. Mozart was said to have an IQ of between 150 and 165.
His IQ was statistically rare but not problematic for him and he managed to massively contribute to the
musical world. This shows that the definition of abnormality classifies all rare behaviours under a
problematic viewpoint. Presenting rare behaviours as undesirable. Therefore, the definition may be
limited in the usefulness and accuracy of what it tells us about rare or abnormal behaviour. It should
represent rare and undesirable behaviours separately.
8 marker: Discuss and evaluate deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality.
PEELD: Strength
One strength of Jahoda's definition is that it is considered a positive and more holistic approach. It provides an alternative
perspective, focusing on desirable behaviours and on the person as a whole, taking into account a multitude of factors that
can affect an individual's mental health and wellbeing. The criteria has also had some influence on and is in accord with the
'positive psychology' movement forming a part of humanistic approaches. This shows that mental health can be viewed in a
more rounded and aspirational way. Therefore, the definition offers a comprehensive approach, covering a broad range of
criteria and encourages clinicians to consider multiple aspects of wellbeing rather than relying on a narrow diagnostic criteria.
However, Jahoda's criteria wasn't widely adopted by mental health professionals. Her criteria for perfect psychological
functioning is proved difficult to achieve all at once and isn't sustainable, making the criteria impractical for diagnosing mental
health disorders.
PEEL: Weakness
One weakness of the definition is that it may be culture-bound. Some of Jahoda's criteria has been found to be ethnocentric. PEEL: Weakness
For example, her emphasis personal growth, development and self-actualization may be considered overly self-centered in Another weakness is that some of her criteria is subjective and lacks clarity. At times, everyone will
other countries and particularly collectivist cultures such as China. This shows that her criteria may be more popular in experience stress, for example, following the death of a loved one. Additionally, small amounts of stress
individualist cultures such as the UK which further suggests that it may have only been designed with American and European can be beneficial in helping us to sharpen focus and cope with challenges. Under the definition, even
cultures in mind. Therefore, it may not be appropriate to generalise her definition to most cultures and it should only be these normal reactions would classify an individual as 'abnormal'. Therefore, the definition fails to
considered a definition in individualist cultures as to avoid incorrect diagnoses. consider the extent at which each criteria becomes abnormal. The definition should also clarify how
many need to be missing in order for a diagnosis to occur.
8 marker: Discuss and evaluate deviation from social/cultural norms as a definition of abnormality.
PEELD: Weakness
One weakness of the definition is that it lacks cultural relativism. Social norms differ between cultures. A behaviour may be
considered 'normal' in one country but 'abnormal' in another. For example, Cochrane (1977) found that Black Caribbean
immigrants in the UK were diagnosed with schizophrenia far more often that white British people, despite schizophrenia rates in
the Caribbean being no higher. This suggests that the definition is culturally biased and is predominantly based on western social
norms. Therefore, abnormality is not standardised with the social norms deviation definition and it may not be appropriate to
generalise it to most cultures. Furthermore, Chappell and Jeppsson (2023) highlighted the subjectivity of the definition by
suggesting that people are reassured by 'typical behaviour' and are disturbed by deviations, exhibiting love of familiar. This can
become problematic if clinicians diagnose based on their own opinions about what is normal, disregarding their patient's
judgment of their own well-being and imposing other people's standards.
PEEL: Strength
One strength of the definition is that it has real-world applications and usefulness. Whilst the definition may fail to support PEEL: Weakness
diagnoses of schizophrenia across a range of cultures, it can be used to diagnose antisocial personality disorder. A key Another weakness of the definition is that social norms change overtime which causes hindsight bias.
characteristic is failure to conform to culturally acceptable and ethical behaviour, expressing recklessness, aggression and For example, homosexuality was regarded as mental illness in the UK in 1973, often resulting in
deceitfulness. It can also influence a diagnosis of schizotypal personality disorder. Thinking of such individuals are seen as 'odd' institutionalization but now, it is simply considered a variation of normal behaviour. This means that
or 'eccentric'. This shows that the criteria accurately captures the core features of these personality disorders, demonstrating historically, reliance on deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality may have resulted in
some success in the definition when the disorder is fundamentally rooted in social deviance. Therefore, deviation from violations of human rights where people, by today's standards are deemed 'normal'. It also highlights
social/cultural norms criterion offers meaningful diagnostic usefulness in disorders whose core symptoms directly involve that such definitions can be used as a form of social control, as argued by Szasz (1974), to marginalize
violating social expectations. groups who do not conform to dominant societal expectations. Therefore, the definition lacks temporal
validity as a behaviour that is viewed as abnormal at one stage may be viewed as normal later on as
societal attitudes change.
8 marker: Discuss and evaluate deviation from failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality.
WAGOLL FFA
PEELD: Weakness Point: A strength of the failure to function adequately (FFA) definition of abnormality is that it provides an
One weakness of the definition is that it is open to abuse, due to it's subjective measures. In practice, it can be very hard to say when someone is objective method to measure and classify functioning using tools like the Global Assessment of Functioning
really failing to function and when they have simply chosen to deviate from social/cultural norms. For example, people who favour high-risk leisure (GAF) scale.
activities or people with alternative lifestyles who choose to live 'off-grid' may be at risk of being diagnosed with a mental health condition and their Evidence: For instance, a high GAF score of 81+ indicates minimal symptoms and good functioning in all
freedom of choice may be restricted. This shows that the failure to function adequately criterion heavily relies on the subjective judgment of the aspects of everyday life, whereas a low score of 0-10 suggests severe symptoms, such as suicidal thoughts or
clinician, as one person's lack of hygiene may be another person's eco-friendly refusal to use deodorant. Therefore, this challenges the validity of FFA extreme risk of harm to oneself or others.
as a definition of abnormality because its reliance on subjective judgment makes it vulnerable to inconsistent or unfair diagnoses, which is socially Explanation: This is beneficial as it offers a standardised, reliable approach to identifying individuals who are
sensitive. However, the definition also considers the subjective personal experiences of the patient which means that it is not entirely reliant on struggling, ensuring they can receive the necessary support or interventions.
external judgment. By considering the thoughts and feelings of the person experiencing the issue, the definition does not simply make a judgment D: However, the FFA definition has limitations, as some individuals may appear to function normally while
without taking the personal viewpoint of the sufferer into consideration. This suggests that it retains some validity as this helps counterbalance the still posing significant risks to others. For example, Harold Shipman, a serial killer who murdered over 200
subjectivity of clinician-led judgment and helps produce more accurate and fair assessments of their behaviour. victims while working as a doctor, did not create observer discomfort and maintained the appearance of
normal functioning.
PEEL: Strength Link: This highlights a critical flaw in the FFA definition, as it may fail to identify dangerous individuals who do
One strength of the failure to function criterion is that it represents a sensible threshold for when people need professional help. Most people show not outwardly show signs of dysfunction, reducing its validity and overall applicability in all cases.
symptoms typical of one or more mental health conditions to some degree at some time. According to the mental health charity Mind, around 25%
of people in England will experience a mental health problem in any given year. Despite this, many people press on in the face of fairly severe
symptoms. It tends to be at the point that one ceases to function adequately that they seek professional help or are noticed and referred for help by
others. This shows that the criterion can successfully identify the point at which everyday symptoms begin to disrupt a person's ability to cope,
signaling that professional support is genuinely needed. Therefore, the definition provides a meaningful distinguishment between everyday stress
and cases where intervention is genuinely necessary, ensuring clinical services remain available for those whose functioning has completely broken
down.
8 marker: Outline and evaluate the biological approach to explaining OCD through genetics. 8 marker: Outline and evaluate the biological approach to explaining OCD through neural.
PEELD: Strength PEEL: Strength
One strength of the genetic explanation for OCD is the range of strong sources that suggest some people are vulnerable to OCD One strength of the neural explanation for OCD is that there are successful treatments for reducing symptoms by
as a result of their genetic make-up. For example, Nestadt et al. (2010) reviewed twin studies and found that 68% of identical targeting serotonin. For example, by preventing serotonin from being reabsorbed and broken down in the presynaptic
(MZ) twins developed OCD as apposed to 31% of non-identical (DZ) twins. Additionally, Marini and Stebnicki (2012) found that a neuron SSRIs increase serotonin levels and thus continue to stimulate the post synaptic neuron. This allows the serotonin
person with a family member diagnosed with OCD is around four times as likely to develop it as someone without. These system to return to the usual level of functioning. This shows that when serotonin levels are increased, OCD symptoms
research studies suggest that there must be some genetic influence on the development of OCD reflecting a consistent finding of improve, reflecting a direct link between serotonin and OCD and suggests that low serotonin levels may the be cause of
OCD occurring more frequently among people who share a great proportion of their genes, suggesting that such disorders occur the disorder. Therefore, this strengthens the construct validity of the neurotransmitter explanation as it demonstrates
through genetic inheritance rather than randomly. Therefore, this strengthens the population validity of the genetic explanation that altering serotonin functioning in the neurons affects OCD symptoms, confirming that the biological mechanism does
as the wide range of research across different samples of twins and families demonstrate the clear pattern of OCD likelihood is underlie the disorder.
not limited to one specific study or group. However, OCD does not appear to be entirely genetic in origin. Environmental risk
factors can also trigger or increase the risk of developing OCD. Cromer et al. (2007) found that over half the OCD clients in their PEELD: Strength
sample had experienced a traumatic event in their past. OCD was also more severe in those with one or more traumas. This Another strength of the neural explanation for OCD is that there is supporting research. For example, Menzies et al.
means that genetic vulnerability only provides a partial explanation for OCD and that other factors such as environment play a (2007) used MRI to produce images of brain activity in OCD patients. Their brain images were compared to those of their
role and should be further investigated. immediate family members who did not have OCD and a control group of unrelated healthy people. It was found that
OCD patients and their immediate family had reduced grey matter in key regions of the brain including the OFC. This PEEL: Strength
PEEL: Strength shows that neural differences are inherited rather than caused by symptoms and that faulty brain structures may Basal Ganglia Dysfunction: Rapoport and Wise were
Another strength of the genetic explanation is that it there is evidence from animals studies that show a particular genetic predispose individuals to OCD. Therefore, this increases the validity of the neural explanation for OCD as it reflects a instrumental in proposing that OCD is related to
variation associated with repetitive behaviour. For example, Ahmari (2016) used genetically modified mice and found that when biological origin. The researchers also concluded that brain scans could be used in the future to detect risk of developing dysfunction within the basal ganglia. Their research
particular genes linked to OCD were altered, the mice began to show persistent and repetitive behaviours which mirror human OCD. However, the relationship may be a circular argument. Evidence such as Menzies et al. reflect a correlation but it is suggested that a disruption in this part of the brain is
compulsions. This shows that specific genetic manipulation can produce compulsive behaviour even in non-human species which unclear whether this is a causal factor or a result of OCD leading to changes in the brain structure. Therefore, we cannot central to the pathophysiology of the disorder,
suggests that biological mechanisms play an important role in influencing OCD. Therefore, this strengthens the genetic consider the neural explanation a complete or definitive account of the disorder. specifically the caudate nucleus
explanation as it illustrates how genetic factors can directly generate OCD symptoms and behaviours.
16 marker: Discuss drug therapy as a treatment for OCD
PEELD: Weakness
One weakness of SSRIs and SNRIs is that they cause unpleasant side effects. Common side effects PEEL: Weakness
of this treatment include gastrointestinal issues, sexual disfunction, and sleep pattern changes. A weakness of using SSRIs to treat OCD is that, although they reduce symptoms, they do not
SNRIs may additionally cause dizziness and increased blood pressure, sweating, and dry mouth. address the underlying causes of the disorder. Although SSRIs work by increasing the levels of
This shows that although these drugs can reduce OCD symptoms, they may also create new serotonin in the brain, which reduces anxiety. And alleviates the symptoms of OCD, it does not
problems that negatively affect a person's quality of life. Therefore, this weakens the usefulness of treat the underlying cognitive and behavioural processes of the mental health disorder. This is
SSRIs and SNRIs as a treatment of OCD because the potential benefits must outweigh the negative evidenced by the fact that once a patient stops taking the drug, they are prone to relapse. This
side effects, otherwise the treatment can become too difficult to tolerate for many patients, shows that drug therapy only manages the biological symptoms rather than resolving the deeper
making the treatment less suitable as a whole. Furthermore, there are alternative treatments psychological mechanisms involved in OCD.Suggestion for a patient with OCD in this case.
which have been proven to be more effective. For example, Skapinakis et al. (2016) carried out a Therefore, comment on biological reductionism/holism.
systematic review of outcome studies and concluded that both cognitive and behaviour therapies Therefore, this highlights biological reductionism, as SSRIs reduce OCD to a single
like systematic desensitisation were more effective than SSRIs in the treatment of OCD. This neurotransmitter imbalance and overlook the wider cognitive, behavioural, and environmental
means that drugs overall may not be the optimum treatment for OCD. factors involved. A more holistic approach, combining medication with psychological therapy, is
needed to fully treat the disorder.
PEEL: Strength
One strength of SSRIs and SNRIs is that they are cost-effectiveness
Drug therapies including BZs, are relatively cheaper compared to psychological treatments
