Ancient Philosophical Influences
,Ancient Philosophical Influences
The philosophical views of Plato, in relation to: understanding of reality, the Forms, the analogy of the cave
The philosophical views of Aristotle, in relation to: understanding of reality, the four causes, the Prime Mover
Key Word: Definition:
What is reality Reality = R of Appearances + R of Forms
What is the Realm of Imperfect, transient realm that is mutable and known through senses
Appearances
What is the Realm of Perfect, ideal realm that is immutable and known through reason
Forms
What are Plato’s Proponent of a priori knowledge whereby knowledge is gained via reason = rationalist
philosophical views Believed rationalism was a better way of knowing things than sensory observation as we
cannot trust an empirical world that is in constant flux
What are the forms Perfect expression of eternal and unchanging concepts that exist in Realm of Forms
Plato argues humans have innate knowledge of forms, accessed by reasoning > senses
Describe the order 1. Shadows of material object (least tangible like shadows, reflections, images)
of the Hierarchy of 2. Material world (objects casting shadows and reflections)
the Forms ——————— Divided Line (differentiates R of Appearances from R of Forms)
3. Lower forms (forms of material objects)
4. Higher forms (beauty, truth and justice)
5. Form of good (like sun b/c derivation for all existence and enlightens rational mind)
Describe Plato’s Allegory of Cave in Plato’s ‘Republic’ supports his rationalist views as prisoners inside
analogy of the cave cave (Realm of Appearances) mistake shadows cast by artefacts for real artefacts
showing humans’ finite understanding of empirical world
Prisoner who escapes is blinded by sun (form of good, the highest form) symbolising
journey of epistemology (knowledge) where humans must progress from state of
ignorance to enlightenment
Plato argues philosopher kings should guide society as they rely on a priori reasoning
What are Aristotle’s Aristotle is a proponent of a posteriori knowledge whereby knowledge is gained via
philosophical views sensory experiences = empiricist
Developed idea ‘per genus et per differentia’ (through type and through difference) to
identify objects/show practical knowledge is derived from sensory experiences > reason
E.g. Humans know dolphins are mammals b/c of their biological features like producing
milk to feed their young and having fur
Aristotle - learning is derived from practice whereas Plato argued it’s recalling knowledge
Describe the Four Aristotle proposes four causes as means for objects to move from potentiality to actuality
Causes
MFEF 1. Material Cause - the substance out of which a thing comes to exist
(e.g. granite for sculpture)
2. Formal Cause - the immanent and observable form that shapes the object
(e.g. form of a body and head for sculpture)
3. Efficient Cause - the external agent which brings the object into existence
(e.g. sculptor carving granite)
4. Final Cause - the telos of the object’s existence
(e.g. carving statue of horse)
Describe Aristotle’s Everything in empirical world is in constant flux b/c seeking to fulfil its telos:
concept of the Either has potentiality (unfulfilled telos) or actuality (fulfilled telos)
Prime/Unmoved Prime Mover (who is pure actuality) cause motion in transient world so objects can
Mover transition from potentiality to actuality (fulfil their telos)
Aristotle does not advocate the God of classical theism but Prime Mover who is perfect,
co-eternal w/ universe, transcendent and unconsciously attracts imperfect things towards
its perfection as the final cause
,Criticisms of Plato's 1. Issue of theoretical knowledge
Rationalist Views 2. Issue of purpose
3. Issue of language
Approach 1 - Issue A01. Plato = proponent of a priori knowledge whereby knowledge is gained via reason
of theoretical Believed rationalism was a better way of understanding reality than sensory observation
knowledge as we cannot trust a world that is in constant flux
Allegory of Cave in Plato’s ‘Republic’ supports his rationalist views as prisoners inside
cave (Realm of Appearances) mistake shadows cast by artefacts for real artefacts
showing humans’ finite understanding of empirical world
Prisoner who escapes is blinded by sun (form of good, the highest form) symbolising
, journey of epistemology (knowledge) where humans must progress from state of
ignorance to enlightenment
2. Heraclitus - ‘No man ever steps into the same river twice’ suggesting transient nature
of empirical world cannot be trusted
3. Descartes principle of ‘Cogito ergo sum’ (I think therefore I am)
Existence is realised through reason as senses are deceptive
Thought experiment of ‘evil demon’ proposes sensory experience espoused by
empiricists are flawed illusions thus all beliefs should be subject to radical doubt and
cannot be used to understand reality
But issue of relying on theoretical knowledge which is less consistent w/ human
observation
1. Aristotle refutes rationalism w/ empiricism
Plato’s concept of R of Forms (which enable soul’s existence independent from body) is
unchanging but therefore cannot explain constant flux in empirical world
Aristotle is a proponent of a posteriori knowledge whereby knowledge is gained via
sensory experiences = empiricist
Not experienced R of Forms so lacks a posteriori evidence to support truth claim
Developed idea ‘per genus et per differentia’ (through type and through difference) to
identify objects/show practical knowledge is derived from sensory experiences > reason
E.g. Humans know dolphins are mammals b/c of their biological features like producing
milk to feed their young and having fur
2. Frank Jackson’s Knowledge Argument
Experiment (Mary’s Room) shows rationalism inadequately explains reality
B/c qualia (sensory experiences unique to individual) were required to fully learn colour
Thus humans require sensory experiences to understand reality
3. Martin Heidegger’s (Existentialist) ‘Being and Time’
Suggests humans are dasein (thrown into empirical world) thus should not be separated
from it as rationalism advocates but should use a posteriori knowledge to understand it
Richard Dawkins (materialist)
‘Illogical to consider a world beyond physical one as it is impossible to make meaningful
statements of world one can never affirmatively know of’
Existence of R of Forms lacks empirical validity to be considered true
4. Karl Popper - Plato’s determination to establish certainty means he erroneously uses
external solutions to solve internal problems encountered in empirical world
Plato’s thinking is utopian and analogy of the cave flawed b/c depicts immaterial world
using material world
C: Rationalism is consistent w/ human observation as reason has been an eternal way of
understanding empirical world
CC: Notion that rationalism is valid b/c it ubiquitous commits is-ought fallacy
David Hume’s book ‘A Treatise of Human Nature’ poses is-ought fallacy which criticises
prescribing ideas from statements of fact
Approach 2 - A01. Plato argued learning is recalling knowledge
Issue of Purpose Humans have innate knowledge of forms which is gained a priori, through soul’s
existence in R of Forms, and is recalled using anamnesis
Plato’s Meno depicts Socrates prompting an uneducated slave to solve geometric
problem w/o teaching him, indicating humans’ innate understanding of perfect concepts
like geometry from R of Forms, which are recalled rather than learnt through experience
Plato’s views on learning suggest humans have forms (perfect expressions of eternal
and unchanging concepts) as a purpose to aspire to
Issue of suggesting humans are able to realise purpose solely through reason
,Ancient Philosophical Influences
The philosophical views of Plato, in relation to: understanding of reality, the Forms, the analogy of the cave
The philosophical views of Aristotle, in relation to: understanding of reality, the four causes, the Prime Mover
Key Word: Definition:
What is reality Reality = R of Appearances + R of Forms
What is the Realm of Imperfect, transient realm that is mutable and known through senses
Appearances
What is the Realm of Perfect, ideal realm that is immutable and known through reason
Forms
What are Plato’s Proponent of a priori knowledge whereby knowledge is gained via reason = rationalist
philosophical views Believed rationalism was a better way of knowing things than sensory observation as we
cannot trust an empirical world that is in constant flux
What are the forms Perfect expression of eternal and unchanging concepts that exist in Realm of Forms
Plato argues humans have innate knowledge of forms, accessed by reasoning > senses
Describe the order 1. Shadows of material object (least tangible like shadows, reflections, images)
of the Hierarchy of 2. Material world (objects casting shadows and reflections)
the Forms ——————— Divided Line (differentiates R of Appearances from R of Forms)
3. Lower forms (forms of material objects)
4. Higher forms (beauty, truth and justice)
5. Form of good (like sun b/c derivation for all existence and enlightens rational mind)
Describe Plato’s Allegory of Cave in Plato’s ‘Republic’ supports his rationalist views as prisoners inside
analogy of the cave cave (Realm of Appearances) mistake shadows cast by artefacts for real artefacts
showing humans’ finite understanding of empirical world
Prisoner who escapes is blinded by sun (form of good, the highest form) symbolising
journey of epistemology (knowledge) where humans must progress from state of
ignorance to enlightenment
Plato argues philosopher kings should guide society as they rely on a priori reasoning
What are Aristotle’s Aristotle is a proponent of a posteriori knowledge whereby knowledge is gained via
philosophical views sensory experiences = empiricist
Developed idea ‘per genus et per differentia’ (through type and through difference) to
identify objects/show practical knowledge is derived from sensory experiences > reason
E.g. Humans know dolphins are mammals b/c of their biological features like producing
milk to feed their young and having fur
Aristotle - learning is derived from practice whereas Plato argued it’s recalling knowledge
Describe the Four Aristotle proposes four causes as means for objects to move from potentiality to actuality
Causes
MFEF 1. Material Cause - the substance out of which a thing comes to exist
(e.g. granite for sculpture)
2. Formal Cause - the immanent and observable form that shapes the object
(e.g. form of a body and head for sculpture)
3. Efficient Cause - the external agent which brings the object into existence
(e.g. sculptor carving granite)
4. Final Cause - the telos of the object’s existence
(e.g. carving statue of horse)
Describe Aristotle’s Everything in empirical world is in constant flux b/c seeking to fulfil its telos:
concept of the Either has potentiality (unfulfilled telos) or actuality (fulfilled telos)
Prime/Unmoved Prime Mover (who is pure actuality) cause motion in transient world so objects can
Mover transition from potentiality to actuality (fulfil their telos)
Aristotle does not advocate the God of classical theism but Prime Mover who is perfect,
co-eternal w/ universe, transcendent and unconsciously attracts imperfect things towards
its perfection as the final cause
,Criticisms of Plato's 1. Issue of theoretical knowledge
Rationalist Views 2. Issue of purpose
3. Issue of language
Approach 1 - Issue A01. Plato = proponent of a priori knowledge whereby knowledge is gained via reason
of theoretical Believed rationalism was a better way of understanding reality than sensory observation
knowledge as we cannot trust a world that is in constant flux
Allegory of Cave in Plato’s ‘Republic’ supports his rationalist views as prisoners inside
cave (Realm of Appearances) mistake shadows cast by artefacts for real artefacts
showing humans’ finite understanding of empirical world
Prisoner who escapes is blinded by sun (form of good, the highest form) symbolising
, journey of epistemology (knowledge) where humans must progress from state of
ignorance to enlightenment
2. Heraclitus - ‘No man ever steps into the same river twice’ suggesting transient nature
of empirical world cannot be trusted
3. Descartes principle of ‘Cogito ergo sum’ (I think therefore I am)
Existence is realised through reason as senses are deceptive
Thought experiment of ‘evil demon’ proposes sensory experience espoused by
empiricists are flawed illusions thus all beliefs should be subject to radical doubt and
cannot be used to understand reality
But issue of relying on theoretical knowledge which is less consistent w/ human
observation
1. Aristotle refutes rationalism w/ empiricism
Plato’s concept of R of Forms (which enable soul’s existence independent from body) is
unchanging but therefore cannot explain constant flux in empirical world
Aristotle is a proponent of a posteriori knowledge whereby knowledge is gained via
sensory experiences = empiricist
Not experienced R of Forms so lacks a posteriori evidence to support truth claim
Developed idea ‘per genus et per differentia’ (through type and through difference) to
identify objects/show practical knowledge is derived from sensory experiences > reason
E.g. Humans know dolphins are mammals b/c of their biological features like producing
milk to feed their young and having fur
2. Frank Jackson’s Knowledge Argument
Experiment (Mary’s Room) shows rationalism inadequately explains reality
B/c qualia (sensory experiences unique to individual) were required to fully learn colour
Thus humans require sensory experiences to understand reality
3. Martin Heidegger’s (Existentialist) ‘Being and Time’
Suggests humans are dasein (thrown into empirical world) thus should not be separated
from it as rationalism advocates but should use a posteriori knowledge to understand it
Richard Dawkins (materialist)
‘Illogical to consider a world beyond physical one as it is impossible to make meaningful
statements of world one can never affirmatively know of’
Existence of R of Forms lacks empirical validity to be considered true
4. Karl Popper - Plato’s determination to establish certainty means he erroneously uses
external solutions to solve internal problems encountered in empirical world
Plato’s thinking is utopian and analogy of the cave flawed b/c depicts immaterial world
using material world
C: Rationalism is consistent w/ human observation as reason has been an eternal way of
understanding empirical world
CC: Notion that rationalism is valid b/c it ubiquitous commits is-ought fallacy
David Hume’s book ‘A Treatise of Human Nature’ poses is-ought fallacy which criticises
prescribing ideas from statements of fact
Approach 2 - A01. Plato argued learning is recalling knowledge
Issue of Purpose Humans have innate knowledge of forms which is gained a priori, through soul’s
existence in R of Forms, and is recalled using anamnesis
Plato’s Meno depicts Socrates prompting an uneducated slave to solve geometric
problem w/o teaching him, indicating humans’ innate understanding of perfect concepts
like geometry from R of Forms, which are recalled rather than learnt through experience
Plato’s views on learning suggest humans have forms (perfect expressions of eternal
and unchanging concepts) as a purpose to aspire to
Issue of suggesting humans are able to realise purpose solely through reason
