Hannah Clargo
Discuss the contribution of Greek Tragedy to the Aeneid, especially in
book 4
Whilst Virgil’s Aeneid is said to have been greatly inspired by the
Homeric epics the Iliad and the Odyssey, it is also evident that there is a
great influence from Greek tragedies including Sophocles’ Ajax, Euripides’
Bacchae, and Aeschylus’ Oresteia. Thus it is important to draw
comparisons, firstly through Aristotle’s definitions of tragedy and epic
within his Poetics, and also through the deaths, literary references, and
presentations of the symbolic altar within these texts, in order to fully
understand the level and effect of the contribution of Greek tragedy to the
Aeneid.
Though many scholars deem Aristotle’s Poetics to be too prescriptive
to successfully apply to most literary works, he is still viewed as a
significant figure in the foundation of academic criticism, even being
named the man ‘from whom they say that criticism and the study of
language took their origin’ (Dio. 53.1). Thus, it is important to consider his
definition of tragedy and compare this to works such as the Aeneid. The
most significant characteristics that Aristotle describes with regards to
Virgil’s epic are those surrounding plot, catharsis, and characters, all of
which appear to have a significant contribution to the Aeneid.
In reference to the prominence of plot, Aristotle claims that there
should be a clear beginning, middle, and end, as well as an obvious unity
of plot. This means that all events which occur should be described in a
chronological order, with a great sense of cohesion and grandeur
throughout (Poetics 6). However, this idea is rejected by some tragedians
such as Euripides, a number of whose plays do not conform to this rule. As
such, it allows it to become more acceptable that in this aspect, Virgil
conforms more so to the tradition found within Euripides’ plays than to
Aristotle’s highly limiting definition. Moreover, Aristotle argues that this
unity of plot should result in a catharsis of pity and fear, both for the
characters and the audience. Nevertheless, this again seems to be
irrelevant to some tragedies such as Euripides’ Bacchae, which ends with
the transformation of Cadmus into a snake (Bacchae. 1330) and the exile
of Agave and the Maenads after their crazed murder of Pentheus
(Bacchae. 1295), neither of which seem to incite a relief from fear or pity.
Similarly, the Aeneid has an incomplete ending, providing no closure to
the events following the death of Turnus, including the foundation of
Rome and the marriage with Lavinia. This definition of tragedy has
therefore clearly not contributed to the Aeneid, with Virgil instead
choosing an open, interpretable ending.
As well as plot, Aristotle places great importance upon the method of
characterisation used within tragedy (Poetics 6). He claims that characters
should be above all realistic, consistent, and necessary to a plot, all of
which Aeneas, the epic protagonist, does appear to correspond.
Additionally, Aristotle states that a character should undergo at least one
moment of peripeteia and anagnorisis, although several may be possible,
as ‘a man cannot become a hero until he can see the root of his own
downfall’ (Poetics). This is etymologically derived from the Greek verb
1
, Hannah Clargo
περιπιπτειν, to fall around or change suddenly, and defined as ‘a sudden
or unexpected reversal of circumstances or situation, especially in a
literary work’ (Merriam-Webster). The clearest example of this occurs in
Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, provided by Aristotle as the perfect example of
Greek tragedy, as the Messenger tells Oedipus of his own lineage,
revealing that his prophecy of killing his father and marrying his mother
has come true (Oed. 1113).
Though there are several scenes which the term peripeteia could be
attributed to throughout the Aeneid, the most inherently influenced by
tragedy seems to be that describing Dido’s death: ‘I could have been
happy, more than happy, if only Trojan ships had never grounded on our
shores’ (Aen. 4.657). However, it is arguable that the actual turning point
causing this ill fortune is that in which she gives herself over to Aeneas
completely, both in an emotional and sexual manner, as Virgil himself
refers to this as ‘the beginning of her death, the first cause of all her
sufferings’ (Aen. 4.170). This occurs as during a storm Dido and Aeneas
are directed into a cave together, resulting in a sexual affair which Dido
‘called marriage, using the word to cover her guilt’ (Aen. 4.175). As this
would not have been considered a true, legal marriage, simply a
consummation of such, even if Aeneas had not decided to leave, Dido
would still become a social outcast due to the immorality of intercourse
outside of a marriage. Thereby, whether she remained with Aeneas or not,
her fate as an outcast is established here, nonetheless causing her
downfall. This is also the moment in which Dido can be seen as a tragic
hero, further demonstrated through comparison of her death with that of
the titular protagonist in Sophocles’ Ajax.
Though Dido’s suicide in Book 4 and Turnus’ death in Book 12 can be
seen as representations of Roman devotio and the Greek motif of
perverted sacrifice respectively (Panoussi, Greek Tragedy in Vergil’s
Aeneid: Ritual, Empire, and Intertext, Ch.2), thus proving the contribution
of Greek tragedy to this play, the former is the only death which appears
an explicit parallel to that of Ajax. The first similarity is that both
characters resort to the method of falling upon a sword: ‘so she spoke and
while speaking fell upon the sword’ (Aen. 4.662), ‘this sword whereon he
fell’ (Ajax. 910). Suicide such as this with use of a sword would be
unexpected of Dido, as women would usually commit suicide in the
bedroom, hanging themselves over the bed with a girdle as a metaphor
for losing their virginity and rejecting their marriage. This idea is found
conceptually within Sophocles’ Antigone, as the protagonist does not
commit suicide in a bedroom but in a cave named a θάλαμος, bed-
chamber. Therefore, whereas Ajax’s death appears more feminine as
suicide as a whole would be viewed as unheroic and emasculating, Dido’s
seems the masculine death of a tragic hero. Both characters also provide
a final speech demonstrating their intention, with Dido asking ‘let them
receive my spirit and free me from this anguish (Aen. 4.652) and Ajax
begging ‘Death, Death, come now and lay your eyes on me!’ (Ajax 854).
Ajax and Dido equally plot their deaths in secret, resulting in a similar
uproar from other characters, with Ajax’s chorus expressing anger at his
decision, exclaiming, ‘all alone then you bled, unguarded by your friends!’
2
Discuss the contribution of Greek Tragedy to the Aeneid, especially in
book 4
Whilst Virgil’s Aeneid is said to have been greatly inspired by the
Homeric epics the Iliad and the Odyssey, it is also evident that there is a
great influence from Greek tragedies including Sophocles’ Ajax, Euripides’
Bacchae, and Aeschylus’ Oresteia. Thus it is important to draw
comparisons, firstly through Aristotle’s definitions of tragedy and epic
within his Poetics, and also through the deaths, literary references, and
presentations of the symbolic altar within these texts, in order to fully
understand the level and effect of the contribution of Greek tragedy to the
Aeneid.
Though many scholars deem Aristotle’s Poetics to be too prescriptive
to successfully apply to most literary works, he is still viewed as a
significant figure in the foundation of academic criticism, even being
named the man ‘from whom they say that criticism and the study of
language took their origin’ (Dio. 53.1). Thus, it is important to consider his
definition of tragedy and compare this to works such as the Aeneid. The
most significant characteristics that Aristotle describes with regards to
Virgil’s epic are those surrounding plot, catharsis, and characters, all of
which appear to have a significant contribution to the Aeneid.
In reference to the prominence of plot, Aristotle claims that there
should be a clear beginning, middle, and end, as well as an obvious unity
of plot. This means that all events which occur should be described in a
chronological order, with a great sense of cohesion and grandeur
throughout (Poetics 6). However, this idea is rejected by some tragedians
such as Euripides, a number of whose plays do not conform to this rule. As
such, it allows it to become more acceptable that in this aspect, Virgil
conforms more so to the tradition found within Euripides’ plays than to
Aristotle’s highly limiting definition. Moreover, Aristotle argues that this
unity of plot should result in a catharsis of pity and fear, both for the
characters and the audience. Nevertheless, this again seems to be
irrelevant to some tragedies such as Euripides’ Bacchae, which ends with
the transformation of Cadmus into a snake (Bacchae. 1330) and the exile
of Agave and the Maenads after their crazed murder of Pentheus
(Bacchae. 1295), neither of which seem to incite a relief from fear or pity.
Similarly, the Aeneid has an incomplete ending, providing no closure to
the events following the death of Turnus, including the foundation of
Rome and the marriage with Lavinia. This definition of tragedy has
therefore clearly not contributed to the Aeneid, with Virgil instead
choosing an open, interpretable ending.
As well as plot, Aristotle places great importance upon the method of
characterisation used within tragedy (Poetics 6). He claims that characters
should be above all realistic, consistent, and necessary to a plot, all of
which Aeneas, the epic protagonist, does appear to correspond.
Additionally, Aristotle states that a character should undergo at least one
moment of peripeteia and anagnorisis, although several may be possible,
as ‘a man cannot become a hero until he can see the root of his own
downfall’ (Poetics). This is etymologically derived from the Greek verb
1
, Hannah Clargo
περιπιπτειν, to fall around or change suddenly, and defined as ‘a sudden
or unexpected reversal of circumstances or situation, especially in a
literary work’ (Merriam-Webster). The clearest example of this occurs in
Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, provided by Aristotle as the perfect example of
Greek tragedy, as the Messenger tells Oedipus of his own lineage,
revealing that his prophecy of killing his father and marrying his mother
has come true (Oed. 1113).
Though there are several scenes which the term peripeteia could be
attributed to throughout the Aeneid, the most inherently influenced by
tragedy seems to be that describing Dido’s death: ‘I could have been
happy, more than happy, if only Trojan ships had never grounded on our
shores’ (Aen. 4.657). However, it is arguable that the actual turning point
causing this ill fortune is that in which she gives herself over to Aeneas
completely, both in an emotional and sexual manner, as Virgil himself
refers to this as ‘the beginning of her death, the first cause of all her
sufferings’ (Aen. 4.170). This occurs as during a storm Dido and Aeneas
are directed into a cave together, resulting in a sexual affair which Dido
‘called marriage, using the word to cover her guilt’ (Aen. 4.175). As this
would not have been considered a true, legal marriage, simply a
consummation of such, even if Aeneas had not decided to leave, Dido
would still become a social outcast due to the immorality of intercourse
outside of a marriage. Thereby, whether she remained with Aeneas or not,
her fate as an outcast is established here, nonetheless causing her
downfall. This is also the moment in which Dido can be seen as a tragic
hero, further demonstrated through comparison of her death with that of
the titular protagonist in Sophocles’ Ajax.
Though Dido’s suicide in Book 4 and Turnus’ death in Book 12 can be
seen as representations of Roman devotio and the Greek motif of
perverted sacrifice respectively (Panoussi, Greek Tragedy in Vergil’s
Aeneid: Ritual, Empire, and Intertext, Ch.2), thus proving the contribution
of Greek tragedy to this play, the former is the only death which appears
an explicit parallel to that of Ajax. The first similarity is that both
characters resort to the method of falling upon a sword: ‘so she spoke and
while speaking fell upon the sword’ (Aen. 4.662), ‘this sword whereon he
fell’ (Ajax. 910). Suicide such as this with use of a sword would be
unexpected of Dido, as women would usually commit suicide in the
bedroom, hanging themselves over the bed with a girdle as a metaphor
for losing their virginity and rejecting their marriage. This idea is found
conceptually within Sophocles’ Antigone, as the protagonist does not
commit suicide in a bedroom but in a cave named a θάλαμος, bed-
chamber. Therefore, whereas Ajax’s death appears more feminine as
suicide as a whole would be viewed as unheroic and emasculating, Dido’s
seems the masculine death of a tragic hero. Both characters also provide
a final speech demonstrating their intention, with Dido asking ‘let them
receive my spirit and free me from this anguish (Aen. 4.652) and Ajax
begging ‘Death, Death, come now and lay your eyes on me!’ (Ajax 854).
Ajax and Dido equally plot their deaths in secret, resulting in a similar
uproar from other characters, with Ajax’s chorus expressing anger at his
decision, exclaiming, ‘all alone then you bled, unguarded by your friends!’
2
