BIO331 Exam 4 – 90 Questions | CNS Anatomy, Brain Lobes & Visual System

This document is an extensive, exam-focused compilation of approximately 90 questions with clear, direct answers designed for BIO331 Exam 4 at university level. It covers foundational and applied concepts from Chapter 1 and Chapter 14, with a strong emphasis on central nervous system (CNS) organization and visual sensory processing. The material is structured in a concise question–answer format that mirrors high-yield exam questions, making it ideal for efficient revision and rapid concept reinforcement. The CNS section provides in-depth coverage of brain anatomy and functional organization, including primary brain divisions (forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain), telencephalon, diencephalon, brainstem components, cranial nerves, spinal cord organization, meninges, cerebrospinal fluid spaces, and arterial blood supply. Detailed explanations of cerebral hemispheres, cortical lobes, fissures, gyri, and language-related regions such as Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas are included to support both anatomical identification and functional understanding. The visual system component offers a thorough breakdown of visual sensation and processing, from optics of the eye to retinal circuitry and cortical signaling. Topics include visual fields, visual acuity, color vision, photopic and scotopic systems, lens accommodation, refractive errors (myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, astigmatism), and retinal anatomy. The document explains photoreceptors (rods and cones), retinal layers, bipolar, horizontal, amacrine, and ganglion cell function, ON/OFF pathways, receptive fields, and P versus M ganglion cells. Clinically relevant visual disorders such as color blindness, retinal detachment, macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, vitamin A deficiency, and retinitis pigmentosa are also integrated. This resource is highly relevant for undergraduate students enrolled in courses such as Neurobiology, Neuroscience, Human Physiology, Sensory Systems, Biomedical Sciences, Biology, Health Sciences, or pre-med and pre-health programs. It is particularly useful for students preparing for midterms or final exams, visual system practicals, and learners who benefit from structured, high-density summaries aligned with university exam expectations. Keywords: central nervous system, brain anatomy, cerebral lobes, brainstem, cranial nerves, spinal cord, visual system, visual fields, visual acuity, color vision, retina layers, photoreceptors, rods and cones, ON OFF bipolar cells, retinal ganglion cells, P cells, M cells, photopic vision, scotopic vision, visual disorders, neurophysiology exam