ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 102
FINAL EXAM QUESTIONS WITH
COMPLETE SOLUTIONS 2025/2026
What regulates pituitary gland secretion? - ANSWERSHypothalamus - sends messages
to release hormones
What is a hormone and how does it act? - ANSWERSA hormone is a secreted
substance into the internal environment - to stimulate specific cells into action.
Compare and contrast glucagon and insulin. - ANSWERSGlucagon is a peptide
hormone, produced by alpha cells to the pancreas, that RAISES the concentration of
glucose in the bloodstream.
Effect is opposite for insulin, which lowers the concentration of glucose.
How are pheromones different than hormones? - ANSWERSA pheromone is a secreted
chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species -
attracting others.
Is a type of hormone.
How is inhibin used in the body? - ANSWERSOne of two hormones produced by the
gonads and inhibit the production of Follicle - Stimulating Hormone (FSH) by the
pituitary gland.
Differentiate between paracrine, autocrine, endocrine, and exocrine glands. -
ANSWERSParacrine Glands - Products act on the target cells by diffusion of their
material into the extracellular space.
Autocrine Glands - Secretions act on gland, itself.
Endocrine Glands - Secrete their products, hormones, directly into the bloodstream.
Exocrine Glands - Secrete their material into ducts.
How is diabetes insipitus different than diabetes mellitus? - ANSWERSDiabetes
Insipitus - Disease where kidneys are unable to conserve water. Rare disease.
Diabetes Mellitus - Characterized by high levels of sugar in the blood. Very common.
Steroid Hormones. - ANSWERSSteroid that acts as a hormone.
,Can be grouped into five groups by the receptor to which they bind: glucocorticoids,
mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens.
Tropic Hormones. - ANSWERSHormones that have other endocrine glands as their
target.
Most are produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary.
Describe normal blood: Number of each cell type, pH. - ANSWERSpH Range: 7.35 -
7.45.
Red blood cell count: 4,000,000 to 6,000,000
White blood cell count: 3,500 to 10,500.
How does the Rh factor affect a developing fetus and its mother? - ANSWERSCan
cause problems if female is Rh Negative and the fetus is Rh Positive. Some positive
cells may enter maternal blood at birth and stimulate maternal tissues to produce anti-
Rh antibodies.
Anti-Rh antibodies in maternal blood can cross the placental membrane and react with
the red blood cells of an Rh-Positive fetus.
What antigens can be found on RBC? What antibodies can be found in the plasma?
How do these create different blood types? - ANSWERSType A blood - A antigen and
antibody Anti-B.
Type B blood - B antigen and antibody Anti-A.
Type AB blood - A and B antigens and no antibodies.
Type O blood - no antigens and antibodies Anti-A and Anti-B.
AB is universal receiver and O is universal donor.
Different leukocytes and their origins. - ANSWERSAll develop from hematopoietic stem
cells in the red bone marrow.
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
Compare formed elements of the blood. - ANSWERSRed blood cells (Erythrocytes) -
99.9%
White blood cells (Leukocytes) - 0.1%
Platelets - 0.1%
, Steps in clot formation. - ANSWERS1. Injury to a blood vessel causes inactive clotting
factors to become activated due to exposed conn.
tissue or release of thromboplastin
2. Prothrombinase (clotting factor) is formed and
acts upon prothrombin
3. Prothrombin is switched to its active form
thrombin
4. Thrombin activates fibrinogen into its active
form fibrin
5. Fibrin forms a network that traps blood (clots)
What blood types can give/receive to/from other blood types? - ANSWERSRecipient
blood type = Type A - Preferred donor = Type A - if unavailable can receive Type O.
Recipient blood type = Type B - Preferred donor = Type B - if unavailable can receive
Type O.
Recipient blood type = Type AB - Preferred donor = AB - if unavailable can receive type
A, B, or O.
Recipient blood type = Type O - Preferred donor = Type O - if unavailable can receive
nothing else.
What are normal levels and percentages of RBC, WBC, and platelets? -
ANSWERSRBC - 40% - 45%
WBC - 55% - 70%
Compare serum vs. plasma. - ANSWERSSerum - protein rich liquid that separates out
when blood coagulates.
Plasma - clear, straw-colored, liquid part of blood in which the cells and platelets are
suspended.
Hematocrit - ANSWERSRatio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of
blood.
How is the ANS used to regulate blood pressure? - ANSWERSIt regulates the degree of
constriction/dilation of the blood vessels in the body.
Constriction = increase of blood pressure
Dilation = decrease of blood pressure
Alters cardiac output which influences blood pressure.
What are the functions of the cardiovascular system? - ANSWERSTransport of
nutrients, oxygen and hormones to cells throughout the body. Removal of metabolic
wastes (carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes).
FINAL EXAM QUESTIONS WITH
COMPLETE SOLUTIONS 2025/2026
What regulates pituitary gland secretion? - ANSWERSHypothalamus - sends messages
to release hormones
What is a hormone and how does it act? - ANSWERSA hormone is a secreted
substance into the internal environment - to stimulate specific cells into action.
Compare and contrast glucagon and insulin. - ANSWERSGlucagon is a peptide
hormone, produced by alpha cells to the pancreas, that RAISES the concentration of
glucose in the bloodstream.
Effect is opposite for insulin, which lowers the concentration of glucose.
How are pheromones different than hormones? - ANSWERSA pheromone is a secreted
chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species -
attracting others.
Is a type of hormone.
How is inhibin used in the body? - ANSWERSOne of two hormones produced by the
gonads and inhibit the production of Follicle - Stimulating Hormone (FSH) by the
pituitary gland.
Differentiate between paracrine, autocrine, endocrine, and exocrine glands. -
ANSWERSParacrine Glands - Products act on the target cells by diffusion of their
material into the extracellular space.
Autocrine Glands - Secretions act on gland, itself.
Endocrine Glands - Secrete their products, hormones, directly into the bloodstream.
Exocrine Glands - Secrete their material into ducts.
How is diabetes insipitus different than diabetes mellitus? - ANSWERSDiabetes
Insipitus - Disease where kidneys are unable to conserve water. Rare disease.
Diabetes Mellitus - Characterized by high levels of sugar in the blood. Very common.
Steroid Hormones. - ANSWERSSteroid that acts as a hormone.
,Can be grouped into five groups by the receptor to which they bind: glucocorticoids,
mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens.
Tropic Hormones. - ANSWERSHormones that have other endocrine glands as their
target.
Most are produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary.
Describe normal blood: Number of each cell type, pH. - ANSWERSpH Range: 7.35 -
7.45.
Red blood cell count: 4,000,000 to 6,000,000
White blood cell count: 3,500 to 10,500.
How does the Rh factor affect a developing fetus and its mother? - ANSWERSCan
cause problems if female is Rh Negative and the fetus is Rh Positive. Some positive
cells may enter maternal blood at birth and stimulate maternal tissues to produce anti-
Rh antibodies.
Anti-Rh antibodies in maternal blood can cross the placental membrane and react with
the red blood cells of an Rh-Positive fetus.
What antigens can be found on RBC? What antibodies can be found in the plasma?
How do these create different blood types? - ANSWERSType A blood - A antigen and
antibody Anti-B.
Type B blood - B antigen and antibody Anti-A.
Type AB blood - A and B antigens and no antibodies.
Type O blood - no antigens and antibodies Anti-A and Anti-B.
AB is universal receiver and O is universal donor.
Different leukocytes and their origins. - ANSWERSAll develop from hematopoietic stem
cells in the red bone marrow.
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Monocytes
Lymphocytes
Compare formed elements of the blood. - ANSWERSRed blood cells (Erythrocytes) -
99.9%
White blood cells (Leukocytes) - 0.1%
Platelets - 0.1%
, Steps in clot formation. - ANSWERS1. Injury to a blood vessel causes inactive clotting
factors to become activated due to exposed conn.
tissue or release of thromboplastin
2. Prothrombinase (clotting factor) is formed and
acts upon prothrombin
3. Prothrombin is switched to its active form
thrombin
4. Thrombin activates fibrinogen into its active
form fibrin
5. Fibrin forms a network that traps blood (clots)
What blood types can give/receive to/from other blood types? - ANSWERSRecipient
blood type = Type A - Preferred donor = Type A - if unavailable can receive Type O.
Recipient blood type = Type B - Preferred donor = Type B - if unavailable can receive
Type O.
Recipient blood type = Type AB - Preferred donor = AB - if unavailable can receive type
A, B, or O.
Recipient blood type = Type O - Preferred donor = Type O - if unavailable can receive
nothing else.
What are normal levels and percentages of RBC, WBC, and platelets? -
ANSWERSRBC - 40% - 45%
WBC - 55% - 70%
Compare serum vs. plasma. - ANSWERSSerum - protein rich liquid that separates out
when blood coagulates.
Plasma - clear, straw-colored, liquid part of blood in which the cells and platelets are
suspended.
Hematocrit - ANSWERSRatio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of
blood.
How is the ANS used to regulate blood pressure? - ANSWERSIt regulates the degree of
constriction/dilation of the blood vessels in the body.
Constriction = increase of blood pressure
Dilation = decrease of blood pressure
Alters cardiac output which influences blood pressure.
What are the functions of the cardiovascular system? - ANSWERSTransport of
nutrients, oxygen and hormones to cells throughout the body. Removal of metabolic
wastes (carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes).
