Lecture 2 Uses and gratifications
Media Selection
People don’t consume all available media content, they make choices.
Media selection is a goal-oriented decision process. It means people consciously or
subconsciously choose certain media messages while avoiding others, based on what they
want or need at that moment.
Example: choosing to scroll through Instagram instead of reading the news because you
want to relax, not think deeply.
Human–Media Interaction
Media use can be divided into three stages:
1. Before: Media selection — deciding what to consume.
2. During: Psychological processes — how users interpret or respond to what they see
or hear.
3. After: Media effects — how that media affects thoughts, emotions, or behaviors.
So:
Media selection (before) → psychological processes (during) → media effects (after)
What Determines Media Selection?
There are two general perspectives:
1. User-Centered Theories
Focus on the person — what’s inside the user that influences their media choices.
Examples:
● Uses and Gratifications Theory (this lecture)
● Mood Management Theory (Lecture 3)
● Habit Models
● Cognitive Decision Models
2. Media-Centered Theories
Focus on the medium itself — what features of the platform or technology attract users.
For example: interactivity, personalization, or visual appeal (as in social media).
Phases of Media Selection
,Before Media Use
1. Choosing whether to engage in a media-driven activity (e.g., watching Netflix) or a
non-media activity (e.g., going for a walk).
2. Selecting a medium/platform (e.g., TV, TikTok, YouTube).
3. Selecting a specific message (e.g., choosing a movie, video, or article).
Then:
Before: Selection of message →
During: Selective attention and processing →
After: Selective remembering and interpretation.
Early Understanding of the Mass Media Audience
1950s–1960s:
● Television entered almost every home.
● Audiences were seen as passive — simply absorbing what they saw.
● The main question was: “What are media doing to us?”
Researchers assumed the media had powerful effects on a helpless audience, a view
known as the hypodermic needle model (media “inject” messages directly into people’s
minds).
Media Selection and Media Effects
Early researchers studied how campaigns (e.g., political or advertising campaigns) affected
audiences.
They asked: Can mass media create dramatic changes in society?
But later evidence (from the 1940s) showed the opposite:
● Audiences are active, not passive.
● They are selective — choosing what fits their interests.
● They are obstinate, meaning stubborn or resistant — not easily manipulated.
(In other words, they are not gullible — they don’t believe everything they see.)
Lazarsfeld & Katz (1940s): The Importance of Selection and Use
Key insights:
● People’s predispositions (values, beliefs, attitudes) influence what media they
choose.
● People use media strategically to fulfill personal needs.
● Media often influence people indirectly — through interpersonal communication.
(e.g., discussing a news story with friends can have more impact than the story
itself.)
,Concerns About Escapism
Critics worried that people used media as a way to escape reality.
“People are deprived and alienated, and so they turn to the dreamlike world of the mass
media for substitute gratifications — which causes even more withdrawal from real social
and political life.” (Katz & Foulkes, 1962)
Meaning of Escapist Media
Consuming escapist media means:
● Engaging with distracting or entertaining content.
● Driven by a psychological need to avoid stress or boredom.
● Often involves high exposure (binge-watching, gaming for hours).
● Happens in a social context (watching with friends or alone).
● Can have dysfunctional consequences (avoiding responsibilities or social
isolation).
However, Katz & Foulkes emphasized that:
● Not all escapism is bad — it can be functional (e.g., stress relief or creative
imagination).
● People’s needs vary widely, so the effects of escapism differ by person and situation.
Uses and Gratifications Theory (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973)
One of the most influential theories in media and communication research.
UGT explains why people use media and what they get from it. Unlike the Hypodermic
Needle Model, which treats audiences as passive, UGT assumes that audiences are
active, goal-oriented, and selective in their media consumption.
Six Assumptions of the Uses and Gratifications Approach
1. Media use is goal-oriented and motivated
○ People choose media for a reason.
○ Media consumption is not random; it serves specific goals or needs.
○ Example: Watching the news to stay informed, or a comedy show to feel
happy.
2. Audiences are active.
○ Viewers are not passive receivers of media.
○ They consciously select content that will satisfy their needs.
○ Example: Choosing a podcast about self-improvement because you want to
learn new skills.
3. Media compete with other “functional alternatives.”
○ For example, you can relax by watching Netflix or by going for a walk.
4. People are more influential than media in the effects process.
○ The audience’s characteristics determine media effects more than the
media itself.
, ○ Personal and social factors (personality, mood, social context) influence how
media affects you.
○ Example: Two people watch the same movie; one feels inspired, the other
feels bored, depending on their own experiences and preferences.
5. Gratifications obtained ≠ gratifications sought.
○ What people expect to get from media is not always the same as what they
actually experience.
○ Example: You watch a drama expecting entertainment, but end up feeling
sad, thoughtful, or even motivated.
6. People can explain their choices.
Audiences can usually identify what media they use and why.
Example
Imagine someone watching Friends:
● Cognitive: Learning about urban lifestyles or social dynamics.
● Affective: Laughing at humorous situations.
● Social integrative: Talking about episodes with friends.
● Tension release: Relaxing after a stressful day.
The viewer actively chooses Friends because it satisfies multiple needs.
The Uses and Gratifications Model
Simplified process:
Beliefs & evaluations → Gratifications sought → Media consumption → Gratifications
obtained
People expect the media to satisfy certain needs (“gratifications sought”).
After using the media, they evaluate whether those needs were actually met (“gratifications
obtained”).
→ The cycle continues and shapes future media use.
Types of Needs and Motivations
Different typologies exist, but the main categories are:
1. Cognitive Needs
○ Desire for information, knowledge, orientation, or curiosity.
○ Example: Watching the news or educational videos.
2. Affective Needs
○ Emotional satisfaction, mood regulation, entertainment, escapism, relaxation.
○ Example: Watching a comedy show to feel better.
3. Social Interaction Needs
○ Sense of belonging, social contact, or connectedness.
○ Includes parasocial relationships (feeling close to a media personality).
Media Selection
People don’t consume all available media content, they make choices.
Media selection is a goal-oriented decision process. It means people consciously or
subconsciously choose certain media messages while avoiding others, based on what they
want or need at that moment.
Example: choosing to scroll through Instagram instead of reading the news because you
want to relax, not think deeply.
Human–Media Interaction
Media use can be divided into three stages:
1. Before: Media selection — deciding what to consume.
2. During: Psychological processes — how users interpret or respond to what they see
or hear.
3. After: Media effects — how that media affects thoughts, emotions, or behaviors.
So:
Media selection (before) → psychological processes (during) → media effects (after)
What Determines Media Selection?
There are two general perspectives:
1. User-Centered Theories
Focus on the person — what’s inside the user that influences their media choices.
Examples:
● Uses and Gratifications Theory (this lecture)
● Mood Management Theory (Lecture 3)
● Habit Models
● Cognitive Decision Models
2. Media-Centered Theories
Focus on the medium itself — what features of the platform or technology attract users.
For example: interactivity, personalization, or visual appeal (as in social media).
Phases of Media Selection
,Before Media Use
1. Choosing whether to engage in a media-driven activity (e.g., watching Netflix) or a
non-media activity (e.g., going for a walk).
2. Selecting a medium/platform (e.g., TV, TikTok, YouTube).
3. Selecting a specific message (e.g., choosing a movie, video, or article).
Then:
Before: Selection of message →
During: Selective attention and processing →
After: Selective remembering and interpretation.
Early Understanding of the Mass Media Audience
1950s–1960s:
● Television entered almost every home.
● Audiences were seen as passive — simply absorbing what they saw.
● The main question was: “What are media doing to us?”
Researchers assumed the media had powerful effects on a helpless audience, a view
known as the hypodermic needle model (media “inject” messages directly into people’s
minds).
Media Selection and Media Effects
Early researchers studied how campaigns (e.g., political or advertising campaigns) affected
audiences.
They asked: Can mass media create dramatic changes in society?
But later evidence (from the 1940s) showed the opposite:
● Audiences are active, not passive.
● They are selective — choosing what fits their interests.
● They are obstinate, meaning stubborn or resistant — not easily manipulated.
(In other words, they are not gullible — they don’t believe everything they see.)
Lazarsfeld & Katz (1940s): The Importance of Selection and Use
Key insights:
● People’s predispositions (values, beliefs, attitudes) influence what media they
choose.
● People use media strategically to fulfill personal needs.
● Media often influence people indirectly — through interpersonal communication.
(e.g., discussing a news story with friends can have more impact than the story
itself.)
,Concerns About Escapism
Critics worried that people used media as a way to escape reality.
“People are deprived and alienated, and so they turn to the dreamlike world of the mass
media for substitute gratifications — which causes even more withdrawal from real social
and political life.” (Katz & Foulkes, 1962)
Meaning of Escapist Media
Consuming escapist media means:
● Engaging with distracting or entertaining content.
● Driven by a psychological need to avoid stress or boredom.
● Often involves high exposure (binge-watching, gaming for hours).
● Happens in a social context (watching with friends or alone).
● Can have dysfunctional consequences (avoiding responsibilities or social
isolation).
However, Katz & Foulkes emphasized that:
● Not all escapism is bad — it can be functional (e.g., stress relief or creative
imagination).
● People’s needs vary widely, so the effects of escapism differ by person and situation.
Uses and Gratifications Theory (Katz, Blumler & Gurevitch, 1973)
One of the most influential theories in media and communication research.
UGT explains why people use media and what they get from it. Unlike the Hypodermic
Needle Model, which treats audiences as passive, UGT assumes that audiences are
active, goal-oriented, and selective in their media consumption.
Six Assumptions of the Uses and Gratifications Approach
1. Media use is goal-oriented and motivated
○ People choose media for a reason.
○ Media consumption is not random; it serves specific goals or needs.
○ Example: Watching the news to stay informed, or a comedy show to feel
happy.
2. Audiences are active.
○ Viewers are not passive receivers of media.
○ They consciously select content that will satisfy their needs.
○ Example: Choosing a podcast about self-improvement because you want to
learn new skills.
3. Media compete with other “functional alternatives.”
○ For example, you can relax by watching Netflix or by going for a walk.
4. People are more influential than media in the effects process.
○ The audience’s characteristics determine media effects more than the
media itself.
, ○ Personal and social factors (personality, mood, social context) influence how
media affects you.
○ Example: Two people watch the same movie; one feels inspired, the other
feels bored, depending on their own experiences and preferences.
5. Gratifications obtained ≠ gratifications sought.
○ What people expect to get from media is not always the same as what they
actually experience.
○ Example: You watch a drama expecting entertainment, but end up feeling
sad, thoughtful, or even motivated.
6. People can explain their choices.
Audiences can usually identify what media they use and why.
Example
Imagine someone watching Friends:
● Cognitive: Learning about urban lifestyles or social dynamics.
● Affective: Laughing at humorous situations.
● Social integrative: Talking about episodes with friends.
● Tension release: Relaxing after a stressful day.
The viewer actively chooses Friends because it satisfies multiple needs.
The Uses and Gratifications Model
Simplified process:
Beliefs & evaluations → Gratifications sought → Media consumption → Gratifications
obtained
People expect the media to satisfy certain needs (“gratifications sought”).
After using the media, they evaluate whether those needs were actually met (“gratifications
obtained”).
→ The cycle continues and shapes future media use.
Types of Needs and Motivations
Different typologies exist, but the main categories are:
1. Cognitive Needs
○ Desire for information, knowledge, orientation, or curiosity.
○ Example: Watching the news or educational videos.
2. Affective Needs
○ Emotional satisfaction, mood regulation, entertainment, escapism, relaxation.
○ Example: Watching a comedy show to feel better.
3. Social Interaction Needs
○ Sense of belonging, social contact, or connectedness.
○ Includes parasocial relationships (feeling close to a media personality).
