WGU D236 pathophysiology Exam Study Guide-With MOST
TESTED Questions 100% Verified Answers (GRADED A+)
What is Starling's Law of Capillary forces? How does this explain why a
nutritionally deficient child would have edema? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Starling's Law
describes how fluids move across the capillary membrane. There are two major opposing
forces that act to balance each other, hydrostatic pressure (pushing water out of the
capillaries) and osmotic pressure (including oncontic pressure, which pushes fluid into the
capillaries). Both electrolytes and proteins (oncontic pressure) in the blood affect osmotic
pressure, high electrolyte and protein concentrations in the blood would cause water to
leave the cells and interstitial space and enter the blood stream to dilute the high
concentrations. On, the other hand, low electrolyte and protein concentrations (as seen in a
nutritionally deficient child) would cause water to leave the capillaries and enter the cells
and interstitial fluid which can lead to edema.
How does the RAAS (Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System) result in increased
blood volume and increased blood pressure? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ A drop in blood
pressure is sensed by the kidneys by low perfusion, which in turn begins to secrete renin.
Renin then triggers the liver to produce angiotensinogen, which is converted to Angiotensin I
in the lungs and then angiotensin II by the enzyme Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).
Angiotensin II stimulates peripheral arterial vasoconstriction which raises BP.
Angiotensin II is also stimulating the adrenal gland to release aldosterone, which acts to
increase sodium and water reabsorption increasing blood volume, while also increased
potassium secretion in urine.
,How can hyperkalemia lead to cardiac arrest? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Normal levels of
potassium are between 3.5 and 5.2 mEq/dL. Hyperkalemia refers to potassium levels higher
that 5.2 mEq/dL. A major function of potassium is to conduct nerve impulses in muscles. Too
low and muscle weakness occurs and too much can cause muscle spasms. This is especially
dangerous in the heart muscle and an irregular heartbeat can cause a heart attack
The body uses the Protein Buffering System, Phosphate Buffering System, and
Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate System to regulate and maintain homeostatic pH, what
is the consequence of a pH imbalance - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Proteins contain many
acidic and basic group that can be affected by pH changes. Any increase or decrease in
blood pH can alter the structure of the protein (denature), thereby affecting its function as
well
Describe the laboratory findings associated with metabolic acidosis, metabolic
alkalosis, respiratory acidosis and respiratory alkalosis. (ie relative pH and CO2
levels). - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Normal ABGs (Arterial Blood Gases) Blood pH: 7.35-7.45
PCO2: 35-45 mm Hg PO2: 90-100 mm Hg HCO3-: 22-26 mEq/L SaO2: 95-100% Respiratory
acidosis and alkalosis are marked by changes in PCO2. Higher = acidosis and lower =
alkalosis Metabolic acidosis and alkalosis are caused by something other than abnormal CO2
levels. This could include toxicity, diabetes, renal failure or excessive GI losses.
Here are the rules to follow to determine if is respiratory or metabolic in nature. -If pH and
PCO2 are moving in opposite directions, then it is the pCO2 levels that are causing the
imbalance and it is respiratory in nature. -If PCO2 is normal or is moving in the same
direction as the pH, then the imbalance is metabolic in nature.The anion gap is the difference
between measured cations (Na+ and K+) and measured anions (Cl- and HCO3-), this
calculation can be useful in determining the cause of metabolic acidosis.
,Why would an increased anion gap be observed in diabetic ketoacidosis or lactic
acidosis? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ The anion gap is the calculation of unmeasured anions in
he blood. Lactic acid and ketones both lead to the production of unmeasured anions, which
remove HCO3- (a measured anion) due to buffering of the excess H+ and therefore leads to
an increase in the AG.
Why is it important to maintain a homeostatic balance of glucose in the blood (ie
describe the pathogenesis of diabetes)? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Insulin is the hormone
responsible for initiating the uptake of glucose by the cells. Cells use glucose to produce
energy (ATP). In a normal individual, when blood glucose increases, the pancreas is signaled
to produced in insulin, which binds to insulin receptors on a cells surface and initiates the
uptake of glucose. Glucose is a very reactive molecule and if left in the blood, it can start to
bind to other proteins and lipids, which can lead to loss of function. AGEs are advanced
glycation end products that are a result of glucose reacting with the endothelial lining, which
can lead to damage in the heart and kidneys.
Compare and contrast Type I and Type II Diabetes - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Type I
diabetes is caused by lack of insulin. With out insulin signaling, glucose will not be taken into
the cell and leads to high blood glucose (hyperglycemia). Type I is usually treated with insulin
injections. Type II diabetes is caused by a desensitization to insulin signaling. The insulin
receptors are no longer responding to insulin, which also leads to hyperglycemia.
Type II is usually treated with drugs to increase the sensitization to insulin (metformin),
dietary and life-style changes or insulin injections.
Describe some reasons for a patient needing dialysis - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ AEIOU-
acidosis. Electrolytes, Intoxication/Ingestion, overload, uremia. Patients with kidney or heart
failure. A build up of phosphates, urea and magnesium are removed from the blood using a
semi-permeable membrane and dialysate.
, AEIOU:
A—acidosis;
E—electrolytes principally hyperkalemia;
I—ingestions or overdose of medications/drugs;
O—overload of fluid causing heart failure;
U—uremia leading to encephalitis/pericarditis
Compare and contrast hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
What are some reasons for a patient choosing one over the other? - VERIFIED
ANSWER✅ Hemodialysis uses a machine to pump blood from the body in one tube while
dialysate (made of water, electrolytes and salts) is pumped in the separate tube in the
opposite direction. Waste from the blood diffuses through the semipermeable membrane
separating the blood from the dialysate. Peritoneal Dialysis does not use a machine, but
instead injects a solution of water and glucose into the abdominal cavity. The peritoneum
acts as the membrane instead of dialysis tubing. The waste products diffuse into the
abdominal cavity and the waste solution is then drained from the body. Peritoneal dialysis
offers continuous filtration and is less disruption to the patient's daily routines. However, it
does require some training of the patient and is not recommended for individuals who are
overweight or have severe kidney failure. Hemodialysis provides medical care, but 3 times a
week for several hours sitting at a hospital or clinic. Individuals with acute kidney failure are
recommended to use hemodialysis.
How does homeostasis and maintaining optimal physiological health impact your
wellbeing? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Homeostasis acts to create a constant and stable
TESTED Questions 100% Verified Answers (GRADED A+)
What is Starling's Law of Capillary forces? How does this explain why a
nutritionally deficient child would have edema? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Starling's Law
describes how fluids move across the capillary membrane. There are two major opposing
forces that act to balance each other, hydrostatic pressure (pushing water out of the
capillaries) and osmotic pressure (including oncontic pressure, which pushes fluid into the
capillaries). Both electrolytes and proteins (oncontic pressure) in the blood affect osmotic
pressure, high electrolyte and protein concentrations in the blood would cause water to
leave the cells and interstitial space and enter the blood stream to dilute the high
concentrations. On, the other hand, low electrolyte and protein concentrations (as seen in a
nutritionally deficient child) would cause water to leave the capillaries and enter the cells
and interstitial fluid which can lead to edema.
How does the RAAS (Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System) result in increased
blood volume and increased blood pressure? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ A drop in blood
pressure is sensed by the kidneys by low perfusion, which in turn begins to secrete renin.
Renin then triggers the liver to produce angiotensinogen, which is converted to Angiotensin I
in the lungs and then angiotensin II by the enzyme Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).
Angiotensin II stimulates peripheral arterial vasoconstriction which raises BP.
Angiotensin II is also stimulating the adrenal gland to release aldosterone, which acts to
increase sodium and water reabsorption increasing blood volume, while also increased
potassium secretion in urine.
,How can hyperkalemia lead to cardiac arrest? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Normal levels of
potassium are between 3.5 and 5.2 mEq/dL. Hyperkalemia refers to potassium levels higher
that 5.2 mEq/dL. A major function of potassium is to conduct nerve impulses in muscles. Too
low and muscle weakness occurs and too much can cause muscle spasms. This is especially
dangerous in the heart muscle and an irregular heartbeat can cause a heart attack
The body uses the Protein Buffering System, Phosphate Buffering System, and
Carbonic Acid-Bicarbonate System to regulate and maintain homeostatic pH, what
is the consequence of a pH imbalance - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Proteins contain many
acidic and basic group that can be affected by pH changes. Any increase or decrease in
blood pH can alter the structure of the protein (denature), thereby affecting its function as
well
Describe the laboratory findings associated with metabolic acidosis, metabolic
alkalosis, respiratory acidosis and respiratory alkalosis. (ie relative pH and CO2
levels). - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Normal ABGs (Arterial Blood Gases) Blood pH: 7.35-7.45
PCO2: 35-45 mm Hg PO2: 90-100 mm Hg HCO3-: 22-26 mEq/L SaO2: 95-100% Respiratory
acidosis and alkalosis are marked by changes in PCO2. Higher = acidosis and lower =
alkalosis Metabolic acidosis and alkalosis are caused by something other than abnormal CO2
levels. This could include toxicity, diabetes, renal failure or excessive GI losses.
Here are the rules to follow to determine if is respiratory or metabolic in nature. -If pH and
PCO2 are moving in opposite directions, then it is the pCO2 levels that are causing the
imbalance and it is respiratory in nature. -If PCO2 is normal or is moving in the same
direction as the pH, then the imbalance is metabolic in nature.The anion gap is the difference
between measured cations (Na+ and K+) and measured anions (Cl- and HCO3-), this
calculation can be useful in determining the cause of metabolic acidosis.
,Why would an increased anion gap be observed in diabetic ketoacidosis or lactic
acidosis? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ The anion gap is the calculation of unmeasured anions in
he blood. Lactic acid and ketones both lead to the production of unmeasured anions, which
remove HCO3- (a measured anion) due to buffering of the excess H+ and therefore leads to
an increase in the AG.
Why is it important to maintain a homeostatic balance of glucose in the blood (ie
describe the pathogenesis of diabetes)? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Insulin is the hormone
responsible for initiating the uptake of glucose by the cells. Cells use glucose to produce
energy (ATP). In a normal individual, when blood glucose increases, the pancreas is signaled
to produced in insulin, which binds to insulin receptors on a cells surface and initiates the
uptake of glucose. Glucose is a very reactive molecule and if left in the blood, it can start to
bind to other proteins and lipids, which can lead to loss of function. AGEs are advanced
glycation end products that are a result of glucose reacting with the endothelial lining, which
can lead to damage in the heart and kidneys.
Compare and contrast Type I and Type II Diabetes - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Type I
diabetes is caused by lack of insulin. With out insulin signaling, glucose will not be taken into
the cell and leads to high blood glucose (hyperglycemia). Type I is usually treated with insulin
injections. Type II diabetes is caused by a desensitization to insulin signaling. The insulin
receptors are no longer responding to insulin, which also leads to hyperglycemia.
Type II is usually treated with drugs to increase the sensitization to insulin (metformin),
dietary and life-style changes or insulin injections.
Describe some reasons for a patient needing dialysis - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ AEIOU-
acidosis. Electrolytes, Intoxication/Ingestion, overload, uremia. Patients with kidney or heart
failure. A build up of phosphates, urea and magnesium are removed from the blood using a
semi-permeable membrane and dialysate.
, AEIOU:
A—acidosis;
E—electrolytes principally hyperkalemia;
I—ingestions or overdose of medications/drugs;
O—overload of fluid causing heart failure;
U—uremia leading to encephalitis/pericarditis
Compare and contrast hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
What are some reasons for a patient choosing one over the other? - VERIFIED
ANSWER✅ Hemodialysis uses a machine to pump blood from the body in one tube while
dialysate (made of water, electrolytes and salts) is pumped in the separate tube in the
opposite direction. Waste from the blood diffuses through the semipermeable membrane
separating the blood from the dialysate. Peritoneal Dialysis does not use a machine, but
instead injects a solution of water and glucose into the abdominal cavity. The peritoneum
acts as the membrane instead of dialysis tubing. The waste products diffuse into the
abdominal cavity and the waste solution is then drained from the body. Peritoneal dialysis
offers continuous filtration and is less disruption to the patient's daily routines. However, it
does require some training of the patient and is not recommended for individuals who are
overweight or have severe kidney failure. Hemodialysis provides medical care, but 3 times a
week for several hours sitting at a hospital or clinic. Individuals with acute kidney failure are
recommended to use hemodialysis.
How does homeostasis and maintaining optimal physiological health impact your
wellbeing? - VERIFIED ANSWER✅ Homeostasis acts to create a constant and stable
