BIOS 252 FINAL STUDY GUIDE

Define: Homeostasis: Is the condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment due to constant interaction of the body’s many regulatory processes. Receptor: Is a body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control center. Control Center: In the body, the brain, sets the range of values within which a controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and generates output commands when they are needed. Effector: Is a body structure that receives output from the controlled condition. What shape does phalanges have? Long bones- each having a head, shaft, and base. The shaft is wider at the base and reduces toward the head. Define movements: Flexion: Decrease in angle between articulating bones, usually in the sagittal plane. Extension: Increase in angle between articulating bones; usually in the sagittal plane. Pronation: Movement of forearm that turns palms posteriorly. Supination: Movement of forearm that turns palms anteriorly. Inversion: Medial movement of the sole. Opposition: Movement of thumb across palm to touch fingertips on same hand. Define the difference between true ribs and false ribs? True ribs = first seven and are attached to the sternum. False ribs = the lower three and do not directly connect to the sternum. Intravenous Injections Hypertonic: A higher concentration of solutes than does the cytosol inside RBCs Isotonic: Maintains its normal shape and volume. Hypotonic: A solution that has a lower concentration of solutes than the cytosol inside the RBCs. **Intravenous solutions, liquids infused into the blood of a vein, are isotonic. Define Suture: is an immovable joint (in most cases in an adult skull) that holds most skull bones together. Merocrine Secretions: synthesized on ribosomes attached to rough ER; processed, sorted, and packaged by the Golgi complex; and released from the cell in secretory vesicles via exocytosis.. Examples include the salivary glands and pancreas Where are Synarthrotic Joints found? An immovable joint such as a suture, gomphosis, or synchondrosis. Ex: sutures of the skull Axial Skeleton If there is more salt inside the cell, the water will move inside the cell. If there is more salt outside the cell, the water will move outside the cell. What shape does the patella bone have? or kneecap, is a small, triangular bone located anterior to the knee joint pH Scale Base: above 7 -Ex: baking soda, glass cleaner, deodorant Neutral: at 7 -Ex: water Acid: under 7 -Ex: lemon juice, orange juice, coffee, urine, saliva What type of tissue is the adipose?  Connective tissue What happens in prophase? the parent cell chromosomes, condense and become thousands of times more compact than they were during interphase. What is the major weight baring bone of the leg? Tibia Describe skeletal muscles Is named because most skeletal muscles move the bones of the skeleton Skeletal muscle tissue is striated: Alternating light and dark protein bands attached to bones by bundles of collagen fibers known as tendons. Cylinder shaped. Four main types of tissue: Connective. Epithelial. Nerve. Muscle. Define: Scoliosis: abnormal lateral curvature of the spine. Lordosis: excessive inward curvature of the spine. Kyphosis: excessive outward curvature of the spine, causing hunching of the back. Examples of connective tissue It binds together, supports, and strengthens other body tissues; protects and insulates internal organs; compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles; Serves as the major transport system within the is the primary location of stored energy); and is the main source of immune responses. Examples: cartilage, bone, adipose, blood, fibers, What are the two main cells found in the nervous system? 1.Neurons 2.Neuroglia (glial cells)—do not generate nerve impulses. **Stratum Conium is the most superficial layer of the skin. Define: Melanin: a dark brown to black pigment occurring in the hair, skin, and iris of the eye in people and animals. It is responsible for tanning of skin exposed to sunlight. Describe synovial joints? A fully movable or diarthrotic joint in which a synovial (joint) cavity is present between the two articulating bones. What are they made out of? joins bones with a fibrous joint What do they contain? contains a synovial cavity and dense, irregular connective tissue that forms the articular capsule normally associated with accessory ligaments. Label stratum cornum, stratum spinssum, Dark people are prone to cancer?  False Define: Osteon: a bone cell, formed when an osteoblast becomes embedded in the matrix it has secreted. Trabeculae: each of a series or group of partitions formed by bands or columns of connective tissue, especially a plate of the calcareous tissue forming cancellous bone. What is the function of yellow marrow? Produced fat, bone, and cartilage. What is the difference between: Diaphysis: is the bone’s shaft or body—the long, cylindrical, main portion of the bone. Epiphysis: are the proximal and distal ends of the bone. What is the function of parathyroid hormone? Parathyroid hormone is the major regulator of the levels of calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), and phosphate (HPO42−) ions in the blood. The specific action of PTH is to increase the number and activity of osteoclasts. The result is elevated bone resorption, which releases ionic calcium (Ca2+) and phosphates (HPO42−) into the blood. Which bone are the ossicles found? Ear What is the main functions of the skeletal system? Support. Protection. Assistance in movement. Mineral homeostasis. Blood cell production. Triglyceride storage (yellow bone marrow) Define (three systems of movement) Synarthrosis: An immovable joint Amphiarthrosis: A slightly moveable joint. Diarthrosis: Freely moveable joint. All are synovial joints. Figure 6.3 (page 174) Label trabeculae, the modularly cavity, osteocyte, and spongy bone. What is the function of articular cartilage? Reduces friction between bones in the joint during movement and helps to absorb shock. What is the difference between periosteum and endosteum? Periosteum: is a tough connective tissue sheath and its associated blood supply that surrounds the bone surface wherever it is not covered by articular cartilage. Endosteum: is a thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity. It contains a single layer of bone-forming cells and a small amount of connective tissue. ** Outer layer of periosteum, which covers a layer of compact bone. The inner layer of the compact bone is coated with endosteum that lines the medullary cavity. What are the minerals needed for bone/skeletal growth? Calcium & phosphorus: make bone extracellular matrix hard. Magnesium: Helps form bone extracellular matrix Fluoride: Helps strengthen bone extracellular matrix. Manganese: Activates enzymes involved in synthesis of bone extracellular matrix. What is the function of the anterior cruciate ligament? Limits hyperextension of the knee prevents the anterior sliding of the tibia on the femur. What are the main bones of the axial skeleton? Skull. Hyoid bone. Auditory ossicles. Vertebral column. Sternum Bone. Ribs. Main names of the bones…. Figure 7.8 (page 202) bones-major parts What type of joint is in the epithelial plate of the long bone? Synchondrosis What shape do cranial bones have? Flat bones What shape does vertebrae bones have? Irregular shaped bones Where does DNA replication occur? Interphase, S1 PHASE. Number of phalanges in the hand? 14 Number of phalanges in the foot? 14 What is the epidermis composed of? The superficial, thinner layer of skin, composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. What is keratin? An insoluble protein found in the hair, nails, and other keratinized tissues of the epidermis. What is the function of the of Langerhans cells? In skin infections, the local Langerhans cells take up and process microbial antigens to become fully functional antigen-presenting cells. What is the stratum basale composed of? is primarily made up of basal keratinocyte stem cells, which can be considered the stem cells of the epidermis. Describe the stratum lucidum? Is present only in the thick skin of areas such as the fingertips, palms, and soles. It consists of four to six layers of flattened clear, dead keratinocytes that contain large amounts of keratin and thickened plasma membranes. Describe the characteristics of thick skin? Thick skin is only found in areas where there is a lot of abrasion - fingertips, palms and the soles of your feet. Describe eccrine sweat glands? are simple, coiled tubular glands that are much more common than apocrine sweat glands They are distributed throughout the skin of most regions of the body, especially in the skin of the forehead, palms, and soles. Are not present, however, in the margins of the lips, nail beds of the fingers and toes, glans penis, glans clitoris, labia minora, or eardrums. The secretory portion of eccrine sweat glands is located mostly in the deep dermis. The excretory duct projects through the dermis and epidermis and ends as a pore at the surface of the epidermis What type of joint is found in the first rib and the manubrium of the sternum? A synchondrosis joints What is jaundice? a medical condition with yellowing of the skin or whites of the eyes, arising from excess of the pigment bilirubin and typically caused by obstruction of the bile duct, by liver disease, or by excessive breakdown of red blood cells. Figure 5.1A (PAGE 143) Label : saphenous glande, sweat glands, muscle Describe male patterned baldness? Male pattern baldness is related to your genes and male sex hormones. It usually follows a pattern of receding hairline and hair thinning on the crown. Each strand of hair sits in a tiny hole (cavity) in the skin called a follicle. What are the factors that affect diffusion? What are they? Passive transport? Temperature. Density of the diffusing substance. Medium of diffusion. Concentration gradient. What are the function of the synovial fluid? Its functions include reducing friction by lubricating the joint, absorbing shocks, and supplying oxygen and nutrients to and removing carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes from the chondrocytes within articular cartilage. Where is DNA found in the cell? Where in the nucleus? Nucleus  genome  mitochondria Describe the epithelial tissue in terms of structure function, and location? It serves as (1) a selective barrier that limits or aids the transfer of substances into and out of the body; (2) a secretory surface that releases products produced by the cells onto its free surfaces; and (3) a protective surface that resists the abrasive influences of the environment. Epithelial tissues line the cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and organs throughout the body. An example is the epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin. What are osteoblasts? A cell that secretes the matrix for bone formation. What are osteocytes? A bone cell, formed when an osteoblast becomes embedded in the matrix it has secreted. Identify the atlas and axis of cervical region. Without them, the head and neck would be impossible to move. What is the difference between maxilla and mandible (jaw). Maxilla – articulates with every bone except the mandible. Mandible- strongest facial bone. Only movable skull bone. Label the pubic, ilium, ischium Label the sacrum, coccyx. Label the epidermis, dermis, hypodermis What are synovial joints? Elbow. Anything that moves Label four sutures. (what are they?) Coronal: unites the frontal bone and both parietal bones Sagittal: Unites the two parietal bones on the superior midline of the skull. Lambdoid: Unites the two parietal bones to the occipital bones. Squamous: Unite the parietal and temporal bones on the lateral aspects of the skull. ***What type of movement of the temporal (TP)? -Gliding Essay (PICK 2): Describe the classes of cells involves in bone growth and remodeling? Describe homeostatic mechanisms used to maintain skeleton? Describe the functions of the skeletal system? The skeleton serves six major functions: Support: The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. Movement: The joints between bones allow movement, Protection: The skeleton helps to protect our many vital internal organs from being damaged. The skull protects the brain. Production of blood cells: The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow. Storage of minerals: The bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferritin and is involved in iron metabolism. Endocrine regulation: Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Describe in detail the functions of the skin? The skin has 6 main functions which are: 1) Protection – your first line of bodily defense from the external environment. 2) Sensation – your nerve endings react to touch, pressure, heat, cold, vibration and tissue injury. 3) Heat Regulation – this skin function regulates body temperature through sebaceous glands. 4) Storage and Synthesis - acts as a storage center for lipids and water as well as a means of synthesis of vitamin D and B by action of Ultra Violet light on certain parts of the skin. 5) Excretion – an important skin function that eliminates urea when you sweat. 6) Absorption – Oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide enter your skin in small amounts. Because of this, medicine by ointments and patches are used by doctors. Cosmetic and skin care products can also enter the skin and penetrate the bloodstream this way. Compare and contrast thiccccc versus thin skin in detail? FEATURE THIN SKIN THICK SKIN Distribution All parts of body except areas such as palms, palmar surface of digits, and soles. Areas such as palms, palmar surface of digits, and soles. Epidermal thickness 0.10–0.15 mm (0.004–0.006 in.). 0.6–4.5 mm (0.024–0.18 in.), due mostly to a thicker stratum corneum. Epidermal strata Stratum lucidum essentially lacking; thinner strata spinosum and corneum. Stratum lucidum present; thicker strata spinosum and corneum. Epidermal ridges Lacking due to poorly developed, fewer, and less-well-organized dermal papillae. Present due to well-developed and more numerous dermal papillae organized in parallel rows. Hair follicles and arrector pili muscles Present. Absent. Sebaceous glands Present. Absent. Sudoriferous glands Fewer. More numerous. Sensory receptors Sparser. Denser. ABCDE rule of skin cancer? And what are the types of skin cancer? A: Asymmetry: This means that they have irregular shapes, such as two very different looking halves B: Boarder: malignant melanomas have irregular—notched, indented, scalloped, or indistinct—borders C: Color: malignant melanomas have uneven coloration and may contain several colors D: Diameter; ordinary moles typically are smaller than 6 mm (0.25 in.), about the size of a pencil eraser. E: Evolving; malignant melanomas change in size, shape, and color. Examples: Basal Cell Cancer, melanoma, squamous cell skin carcinoma