FTCE Business Education in Information Technology updated 2025 Questions With Complete solutions

1. Self-Correction - ANSWER Children begin to correct some of their own reading errors. Generally, this behavior is accompanied by the rereading of the previous phrase or sentence. 2. Semantic Cues - ANSWER Children use their prior knowledge, sense of the story, and pictures to support their predicting and confirming the meaning of the text. 3. Semantic Web - ANSWER A visual graphic organizer that the teacher can use to introduce a reading on a specific topic. It visually represents many other words associated with a target word. The web can help activate the children's prior knowledge and extend or clarify it. It can also serve to check new learning after guided or independent reading. 4. Spatial Learning - ANSWER Using images, color, or layout to help readers of this learning style. 5. Stahl, Stephen A - ANSWER Nationally known researcher in the areas of beginning reading, phonics, fluency, and vocabulary instruction. 6. Standard Score - ANSWER How far a child's grade on a standardized test is from the average score (mean) on the test in terms of the standard deviation. If a child scores 70 on a standardized test and the standard deviation is 5 and the average (mean) score is 65, the child is one standard deviation above the average. 7. Standardized Test - ANSWER A test given under specified conditions allowing comparisons to be made. A set of norms or average scores on this test will be used for comparisons. 8. Stop-and-Think Strategy - ANSWER A balanced-literacy strategy for constructing meaning. As the text is being read, the child asks himself or herself, does this make sense to me? If it does not make sense to me, I should then try to reread it or read ahead. I can also look up words that I don't know or ask for help. 9. Strategic Readers - ANSWER As defined by researchers Marie Clay and Sharon Taberski, _________ readers are self-improving and do the following as they read: • Monitor their reading to see if it makes sense semantically, syntactically, and visually. • Look for and use semantic, syntactic, and visual clues. • Uncover and identify new things about the text. • Cross check and use one cueing system against another. • Self-correct their reading when what they first read does not match the semantic, syntactic, and visual clues • Solve for and identify new words using multiple cueing systems. 10. Structural Analysis - ANSWER The process of examining the words in the text for meaningful word units (affixes, base words, inflected endings). 11. Syntactic Cues - ANSWER When you ask a child, if what he or she has just read "sounds right" to him or her, you are trying to get that child to use. These cues use the order of words and the student's knowledge of the oral English language to help determine if what was read could be accurate. 12. Taberski, Sharon - ANSWER Elementary teacher and researcher. Work focuses on a series of interconnected interactions with the learner rather than on a prescribed set of skills. The interactions include: assessment, demonstration, practice, and response. 13. Text Features - ANSWER Children need to be alerted to the following ____ ________ that may initially appear strange to them: 1. a period that marks the end of a "telling sentence" 2. a question mark that is at the end of a sentence that asks a question 3. an exclamation mark used to express surprise or excitement at the end of a sentence 4. capital letters that begin a sentence and the names of persons, places, and things 5. bold, italicized, or underlined text to highlight key ideas 6. quotation marks that show dialogue 7. a hyphen used to break a long word up into its syllables 8. a dash used to show a break in an idea, a parenthetical element, or an omission an ellipse that shows an omission or break in the text 9. a paragraph in nonfiction which shows a new point being made. 14. Trade Books - ANSWER Books designed to entertain and inform outside the classroom which can be used successfully in the classroom to heighten motivation in your students. While textbooks cover a topic in a prescribed way, these may introduce or expand upon a topic by including it in a fictional setting, or alternatively, a non-fiction account from real life. 15. Transactionalism - ANSWER Borrows from cognitivism and constructivism. View of the reading transaction as a unique event involving reader and text at a particular time under particular circumstances rules out the dualistic emphasis of other theories on either the reader or the text as separate and static entities. This concept accounts for the importance of factors such as gender, ethnicity, culture, and socioeconomic context. Louise Rosenblatt. 16. Transitional Readers - ANSWER Recognize an increasing number of "hard" words that are content related. They can provide summaries of the stories they read. They are more at ease with handling longer, more complex, connected text with short chapters. These readers can read independent-level texts with correct phrasing, expression, and fluency. When they encounter unfamiliar words, they have a variety of strategies to figure out the unfamiliar words. Their reading demonstrates that they are able to integrate meaning, syntax, and phonics in a consistent manner so they can understand the texts they are reading. 17. Unstructured Question - ANSWER Open-ended and can lead to great discussion. This type of question can also provide the teacher with more insight into the student's thoughts. 18. Vail, Priscilla - ANSWER Noted for her research in the study of dyslexia and its myths. 19. Validity - ANSWER The test assessed what it was supposed to assess and measure. 20. Venn Diagram - ANSWER A diagram consisting of two or three intersecting circles to visually represent similarities and differences for texts, characters, and topics. No author study is complete without _____ ____________ comparing different authors' works. This is the most commonly-used graphic organizer in elementary schools today. It can be used effectively as part of an answer to a constructed response question. 21. Visual Cues - ANSWER Readers use their knowledge of graphemes to predict and confirm text. The graphemes may be words, syllables, or letters. 22. Vygostky, Lev - ANSWER Zone of Proximal Development 23. Word Analysis - ANSWER The analysis of words employing letters, phonic structures, contextual clues, or dictionary skills. 24. Word Identification - ANSWER How the reader determines the pronunciation and the meaning of an unknown word. 25. Word Recognition - ANSWER The process of determining the pronunciation and some degree of the meaning of an unknown word. 26. Word Work - ANSWER The term the balanced-literacy approach uses for the study of vocabulary. 27. Learning Logs - ANSWER Daily records of what students have learned. 28. Leveled texts - ANSWER An arrangement of books, both literary and informational, from easiest to hardest defined by a set of characteristics. 29. Listening Post or Center - ANSWER Sets of headphones attached to a single tape player. Children can go to centers where they listen to audiotapes of books while reading the same book in print. These posts are in many libraries as well. 30. Literature Circles - ANSWER A group discussion involving four to six children who have read the same work of literature (narrative or expository text). They talk about key parts of the work, relate it to their own experience, listen to the responses of others, and discuss how parts of the text relate to the whole. 31. Manipulation - ANSWER Moving around or switching sounds within a word or words within a phrase or sentence. 32. Mann, Horace - ANSWER Argued that universal public education was the best way to turn the nation's unruly children into disciplined, judicious republican citizens. built public secular schools in Massachusetts with most states following. "Normal schools" to train professional teachers. Mann has been credited by educational historians as the "Father of the Common School Movement". 33. Meaning Vocabulary - ANSWER Words whose meanings children understand and can use. 34. Metacognition - ANSWER Defined as "cognition about cognition", or "knowing about knowing". It comes from the root word "meta", meaning behind. It can take many forms; it includes knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or for problem solving. 35. Miscue - ANSWER An oral reading error made by a child in which what the child perceives differs from the actual printed text. 36. Miscue Analysis - ANSWER The teacher keeps a detailed running record of the errors or inaccurate attempts of a child reader during a reading assessment. This helps the teacher know what help the child needs to avoid such errors. 37. Monitoring Reading - ANSWER Various strategies that children use to monitor their own reading. For example, are they maintaining fluency by bringing prior knowledge to the story to make predictions, using these predictions to do further checking, searching, and self correcting as the story progresses, and using problem solving word study skills to make links from known words to unknown words? 38. Morphemes - ANSWER The smallest units of meaning in words. There are two types: free, which can stand alone, such as love, and bound, which must be attached to another to carry meaning, such as ed in loved. 39. Narrative Text - ANSWER One of the two basic text structures. It tells or communicates a story. Includes novels, short stories, and plays as well as some poems Needs to be taught differently than the expository text because of its structure. 40. Norm-referenced test - ANSWER Provide information about how the local test takers did compared to a representative sampling of national test takers. 41. One-to-One Matching - ANSWER Matching one spoken word with one written word. 42. Onset Rime-Blending - ANSWER Everything before the vowel and RIME (the vowel and everything after it). For example, the word "sleep" can be broken into /sl/ and /eep/. Word families are built using rimes. The /eep/ word family would include jeep, keep, and weep. 43. Orthography - ANSWER A method of representing spoken language through letters and diacritics. 44. The study of spelling and standard spelling patterns. 45. Morphology - ANSWER The study of word structure. Encompasses the derivation of words, the use of inflections, and the creation of compound words. 46. Partial-Alphabetic Stage - ANSWER Students recognize some letters of the alphabet and can use them together with context to remember words by sight. 47. Pearson, David - ANSWER Gradual Release of Responsibility. This instructional model requires that the teacher, by design, transitions from assuming "all the responsibility for performing a task...to a situation in which the students assume all of the responsibility." 48. Percentile - ANSWER If a child scores at the 56th percentile for his/grade level, his/her score is equal to or above that of 56 percent of the children taking that standardized test and below that of 46 percent of the children on whose scores the test was normed. 49. Performance Assessment - ANSWER Having children do a task that demonstrates their knowledge, skills, and competency. Having children author their own alphabet book on a particular topic would be a performance assessment for knowledge of the alphabet. 50. Phoneme - ANSWER The speech sound units that make a difference in meaning. The word "rope" has three /r/, /o/, and /p/. Change one, say /r/ to /n/, and you have a different word: nope. 51. Phonemic Awareness - ANSWER The ability to distinguish, manipulate, and blend specific sounds or phonemes within an individual word. It is oral. It is a specific type of phonological awareness dealing only with phonemes in a spoken word (Phonological Awareness is an umbrella and this is a spoke of that umbrella). The findings of the National Reading Panel (2000) were most instrumental in increasing emphasis on instruction in this area. 52. Phonics - ANSWER The study of relationships between phonemes (speech sounds) and graphemes (letters) that represent the phonemes. It is also decoding or the sounding out of unknown written words. 53. Phonics Approach - ANSWER The teacher asks the child to look at the beginning letter of a word, then asks the child to connect the beginning letter to the text and story and to think about what word would make sense there 54. Phonological Awareness - ANSWER The ability to recognize that spoken words are composed of a set of smaller units such as onsets, rimes, syllables and sounds and how they can be blended together, segmented, and switched/manipulated to form new combinations and words. It is auditory and must be in place before the alphabetic principle can be taught. 55. Phonological Awareness vs. Phonemic Awareness - ANSWER Phonological Awareness - awareness that words are made up of small sound units (phonemes) and can be segmented into larger sound "chunks" known as syllables and each syllable begin with a sound (onset) and ends with another sound (rime). 56. Phonemic Awareness - involves an understanding of the ways that sounds function in words, but deals with only one aspect of sound: the phoneme. It is the ability to recognize the most minute sound units in words. 57. Phonological Cues - ANSWER Readers use their knowledge of letter/sound and sound/letter relationships to predict and confirm meaning. 58. Phonology - ANSWER The study of speech structure in language that includes both the patterns of basic speech units (phonemes) and the tacit rules of pronunciation. 59. Portfolios - ANSWER Collections of a child's work over time. They include a cover letter, reflections from the child and teacher, and other supportive documents including standards, performance-task examples, prompts, and sometimes peer comments. 60. Pre-Alphabetic Stage - ANSWER Students read words by memorizing their visual features or guessing words from their context. 61. Pressley, Michael - ANSWER Comprehension Strategy Instruction. A complex 62. instructional process for teaching students to use 63. multiple comprehension strategies flexibly and 64. interactively. 65. Primary Language (an ELL term) - ANSWER The language an individual is the most fluent in and at ease with. This is usually, but not always, the individual's first language. 66. Promote Word Study - ANSWER Children should be required to go to the dictionary at least once or twice a day, collect and share words of interest they find in their readings, and do vocabulary work sheets from a basal reader or commercial vocabulary book. 67. Prompts - ANSWER When the teacher intervenes in the child's independent reading to help with pronouncing or comprehending a specific word. On a reading record, the teacher notes this assistance. When the teacher wants to match a child with a particular book or determine the child's stage/level of reading, the teacher does not use ______. 68. Prosody - ANSWER Reading expression, appropriate phrasing, and good inflection are characteristics of 69. Question-Generating Strategy for an Expository Text - ANSWER First the child previews the text by reading titles, subheadings, looking at pictures or illustrations, and reading the first paragraph. Next the child asks a "think" question, which he or she records. Then the child reads to find information that might answer the "think" question. The child may write down the information found or think about another question that is answered by what is being read. The child continues to read, using this strategy. 70. Reading for Information - ANSWER Reading with the purpose of extracting facts and expert opinion from the text. Children should be introduced to the following information reading resources: web resources that are age and grade appropriate for children, the concept of the table of contents, chapter headings, glossaries, pictures, maps, charts, diagrams and text structures in an information text. They should be taught to use notes, graphs, organizers, and mind maps to share information extracted from a text. 71. Reciprocal Teaching - ANSWER Developed by Palinscar and Brown. Metacognitive strategy package of Predicting, Clarifying, Questioning, and Summarizing. Visualizing is sometimes taught as a fifth strategy. 72. Recode - ANSWER To change information from one code into another, as recoding writing into oral speech. 73. Recognition Vocabulary - ANSWER The group of words that children are able to correctly pronounce, read orally, and understand on sight. 74. Record of Reading Behavior (Running Record) - ANSWER An objective observation during which the teacher records, using a standard set of symbols, everything the child reader says as the child reads a book selected by the teacher. 75. Records of Independent Reading and Writing - ANSWER These can include the children's journals, notebooks or logs of books read with the names of the authors, titles of the books, date completed, and pieces related to books completed or in progress. 76. Reflection - ANSWER To analyze, discuss, and react to one's learning on any grade or age level. 77. Reliability - ANSWER The degree to which an assessment measures what it is supposed to measure over time. 78. Retelling - ANSWER Can be written or oral. Children are expected and encouraged to tell as much of a story as they can remember. It is far more extensive than just summarizing. Children should include the beginning, middle, and end plot lines and should be able to tell about the book's characters. 79. Rosenblatt, Louise - ANSWER Described the act of reading as a dynamic "transaction" between the reader and the text. She argued that the meaning of any text lay not in the work itself but in the reader's interaction with it. Her work made her a well-known reader response theorist (Transactional Theory or Approach). 80. Routman, Regie - ANSWER Researcher and author who shows teachers how to teach consistent with findings in reading research yet also with highly practical "scripted lessons" and teaching tips that make the classroom come alive. She advcates for literature based teaching and meaning centered approaches for learning. (Elementary Level) 81. Rubric - ANSWER A set of guidelines or acceptable responses for the completion of any task. Usually ranges from 0 to 4 with 4 being the most detailed response and 0 indicating a response to the task that lacked detail or was in other ways insufficient. 82. Scaffolding - ANSWER Refers to the teacher support necessary for the child to accomplish a task or to achieve a goal that the child could not accomplish on his/her own. Vygotsky termed this window of opportunity the "zone of proximal development." Ultimately, as the child becomes more proficient or capable, the scaffold it is withdrawn. The goal is to help the child perform the reading task independently and internalize the behavior. 83. Searching - ANSWER Children pause to search in the picture, print, or their memory for known information. This can happen as the child tackles an unknown word or after an error. 84. Second Language (ELL term) - ANSWER A language acquired or learned simultaneously with or after a child's acquisition of a first language. 85. Segmenting - ANSWER The process of hearing a spoken word and identifying its separate phonemes or syllables. 86. Ability Grouping - ANSWER Grouping of children with similar needs for instructional purposes. They do not remain constant throughout the year but change as the children's needs within them change. 87. Phoneme - ANSWER The smallest unit of speech that can be used to make one word different from another word. 88. Independent Reading Level - ANSWER The level at which a student can read a text on his/her own as indicated by a 95% accuracy rate. 89. Grapheme - ANSWER Unit of writing that represents a single phoneme-can be a letter or group of letters. 90. Morpheme - ANSWER Smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of language (e.g., in, come, -ing, forming incoming ). 91. Instructional Level - ANSWER The level at which students can read with the assistace of a teacher as indicated by an 85-95% accuracy rate. 92. Action Research - ANSWER Teacher research that is carried out by a teacher practitioner in the classroom to help a teacher evaluate his/her performance in the classroom 93. Frustration Level - ANSWER The level at which students shouldn't read and indicates an accuracy rate below 85%. 94. Adams, Marilyn Jager - ANSWER A theorist in early reading (emergent reading) who has identified five tasks for phonemic awareness: Task 1- Ability to hear rhymes and alliteration. Task 2- Ability to do oddity tasks (recognize the member of a set that is different.) Task 3 -The ability to orally blend words and split syllables. Task 4 -The ability to orally segment word. Task 5- The ability to do phonics manipulation tasks. 95. Allington, Richard - ANSWER Matching Text to Readers. Research has included reading and learning disabilities, and effective instruction in classroom settings. 96. Alliteration - ANSWER Occurs when words begin with the same consonant sound, as in Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. 97. Alphabetic Principle - ANSWER The idea that written spellings represent spoken words. Also known as graphophenemic awareness. 98. Anchor Book - ANSWER A balanced literacy term for a book that is purposely read repeatedly and used as part of both the reading and writing workshop. It is a good idea to use certain books that become the children's familiar and cherished favorites for both reading and inspiring children's writing. 99. Assonance - ANSWER Repetition of stressed vowel sounds within words with different end consonants. "Fleet feet sweep by sleeping geese". 100. Atwell, Nancy - ANSWER Author of "In The Middle: Writing, Reading and Learning With Adolescents". She believes that students become better writers if they are given ownership of what they are writing and long uninterrupted blocks of time to write. Rejects lectures, assignments, tests and worksheets. Mini-lessons are good to address topics as needed. 101. Authentic Assessment - ANSWER Assessment activities that reflect the actual workplace, family, community, and school curriculum. 102. Balanced Literacy Lesson Format - ANSWER A format for the delivery of a literacy lesson, whether it is a reading or writing workshop lesson. The format begins with a 10-15 minute mini-lesson delivered by the teacher to the whole class. This mini-lesson is then followed by a thirty-minute small-group lesson (the children break into small groups to work). It concludes with a 10-minute share session during which the whole class reconvenes to share what they have done in the small groups. This format is often referred to as the whole-small-whole group approach. 103. Behaviorism - ANSWER Learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning. Three basic assumptions are held to be true. First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. 104. Benchmarks - ANSWER School, state, or nationally mandated statements of expectations for student learning and achievement in various content areas. 105. BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (An ELL/Bilingual Education term) - ANSWER Learning second language skills and becoming proficient in a second language through face to face interaction-translation through speaking, listening, and viewing. 106. Big Books - ANSWER Best way to model directionality and one to one word matching in primary grades. 107. Blending - ANSWER The process of hearing separate phonemes and being able to merge them together to read the word. 108. Book Features - ANSWER Children need to be familiar with the following: front and back cover; title and half-title page; dedication page; table of contents; prologue and epilogue; and foreword and after notes. For factual books, children need to be familiar with labels, captions, glossary, index, headings and subheadings of chapters, charts and diagrams, and sidebars. 109. Bound Morpheme - ANSWER An inflectional ending that can be added to a base word to change its case, gender, number, tense or form. It cannot stand alone. 110. Brown & Palinscar - ANSWER Reciprocal Teaching researchers 111. 112. Bruner, Jerome - ANSWER Scaffolding. Contructivism. Calkins, Lucy - ANSWER Writing and Reading Workshops. A "constructivist" who believes that children develop a passion for reading when they are given freedom to choose books that are meaningful to them. Her approach to literacy is that children work in small groups and consult each other as much as possible. She advocates that teachers routinely engage in conferences with each individual child about his writing and reading. Took Graves' ideas on writing and translated them to include reading. 113. Chall, Jeanne - ANSWER The earliest reading researcher to come to the conclusion that phonics and decoding should be emphasized from the very beginning of reading instruction. 114. Chard and Osborn - ANSWER Theorists who established guidelines for children with reading disabilities showing that it is essential for them to work intensely on the alphabetic principle/graphophenemic awareness. 115. Checklist - ANSWER An assessment form that lists targeted learning and social behaviors as indicators of achievement, knowledge, or skill. They can be professionally- or teacher-prepared. 116. Cinquain - ANSWER A five-line poem that can be read and then used as a model for writing. Generally, line 1 of this format is a single word; line 2 has 2 words that describe the title of line 1; line 3 is comprised of 3 words that are movement words; line 4 has 4 words that express feeling; and line 5 has a single word that is a synonym for line 1's single word. 117. Clay, Marie - ANSWER A key theorist whose work has helped teacher's document children's oral reading progress throughout the school year. New Zealand born researcher in the field of special needs emergent literacy. Known for Running Records. 118. Cognitivism - ANSWER The theory that humans generate knowledge and meaning through sequential development of an individual's cognitive abilities, such as the mental processes of recognition, recollection, analysis, reflection, application, creation, understanding, and evaluation. The learner requires assistance to develop prior knowledge and integrate new knowledge. The learner requires scaffolding to develop schema and adopt knowledge from both people and the environment. The educators' role is pedagogical in that the instructor must develop conceptual knowledge by managing the content of learning activities. Grew out of Gestalt psychology. 119. Comprehension - ANSWER This occurs when the reader correctly interprets the print on the page and constructs meaning from it. It depends on activating prior knowledge, cultural and social background of the reader, and the reader's ability to use ____________-monitoring strategies. 120. Concepts About Print - ANSWER Include such things as the following: book handling, looking at print, directionality, sequencing, locating skills, punctuation, and concepts of letters and words. 121. Consolidated-Alphabetic Stage - ANSWER Students consolidate their knowledge of grapheme-phoneme blends into larger units that recur in different words. 122. Consonant Digraphs - ANSWER Two consecutive consonants that represent one new speech sound. In the word "graph" the ph, which sounds like /f/ is a _________. 123. Constructivism - ANSWER Seeks to explain how knowledge is constructed in the human being when information comes into contact with existing knowledge that had been developed by experiences. Discovery, hands-on, experiential, collaborative, project based, and task-based learning are a number of applications that base teaching and learning on this theory. Draws heavily on psychological studies by Piaget and Bruner. 124. Contexts - ANSWER Sentences deliberately prepared by the teacher that include sufficient contextual clues for the children to decipher meaning. 125. Contextual Redefinition - ANSWER Using context to determine word meaning. 126. Cooper, J. David - ANSWER Theorist who believes that there is a finite body of approved literature children should be taught on various grade levels and has produced books about what everyone needs to know to be literate on various grade levels. He and other advocates of the Balanced Literacy Approach, feel that children become literate, effective communicators and able to comprehend, by learning phonics and other aspects of word identification through the use of engaging reading texts. Engaging text, as defined by the balanced literacy group, are those texts which contain highly predictable elements of rhyme, sound patterns, and plot. 127. Cooper, J. David - ANSWER Theorist who believes children should not be "taught" vocabulary and structural analysis. Views literacy as reading, writing, thinking, listening, viewing, and discussing−children learn these abilities by engaging in authentic explorations, readings, projects, and experiences. 128. Cooperative Reading - ANSWER Children read with a partner or buddy. It can be silent or oral reading. 129. Core Curriculum Program - ANSWER Commercially developed products meant to reach the majority of students and provide them with the necessary skills to be successful readers 130. Crisscrossers - ANSWER An ELL term for second-language learners who have a positive attitude toward both first-language and second-language learning. These second-language learners, children from ELL backgrounds, are comfortable navigating back and forth between the two languages as they learn. 131. Criterion-referenced test - ANSWER Tests and assessments designed to measure student performance against a fixed set of predetermined criteria or learning standards. In elementary and secondary education, used to evaluate whether students have learned a specific body of knowledge or acquired a specific skill set. 132. Cues - ANSWER As they self-monitor their reading comprehensions, readers integrate various sources of information to help them construct meaning from text and graphic illustrations. 133. Cueing Systems - ANSWER Sources of information used by readers to help them construct meaning. These include Syntactic and Semantic. 134. Decodeable Text - ANSWER A text that a child can read aloud with correct pronunciations 135. Decoding - ANSWER "Sounding out" a printed sequence of letters based on knowledge of letter/sound correspondences. 136. Differentiated Instruction - ANSWER The need for the teacher, based on observation of individual student's work, progress, test results, fluency, and other reading/literacy behaviors, to provide modified instruction and alternative strategies or activities. These activities are specifically developed by the teacher to address the individual student's needs. 137. Diphthongs - ANSWER Two vowels in one syllable where the two sounds are heard. For instance, in the word house both the "o" and the "u" are heard. 138. Directionality - ANSWER Children use their fingers to indicate left-to-right direction and return-sweep to the next line. 139. Dolch, Edward William - ANSWER A major proponent of the "whole-word" method of beginning reading instruction. Prepared a sight word list in 1936 which was originally published in his book Problems in Reading in 1948. Still in use today. 140. Early Readers - ANSWER These readers recognize most high-frequency words and many simple words. They use pictures to confirm meaning. Using meaning, syntax, and phonics, they can figure out most simple words. They use spelling patterns to figure out new words. They are gaining control of reading strategies. They use their own experiences and background knowledge to predict meanings. They occasionally use story language in their writing. This stage follows emergent reading. 141. Ehri, Linnea - ANSWER A Professor of Educational Psychology at the Graduate Center, City University of New York--has developed a four phase model of how students learn to read words. 142. Ehri's Four Phases - ANSWER 1. Pre-alphabetic; 2. Partial Alphabetic; 3. Full-alphabetic; 4. Consolidated-alphabetic 143. Emergent Readers - ANSWER The stage of reading in which the reader understands that print contains a consistent message. The reader can recognize some high frequency words, names, and simple words in context. Pictures can be used to predict meaning. The reader begins to attend to left to right directionality and features of print and may identify some initial sounds and ending sounds in words. 144. Encode - ANSWER To change a message into symbols. For example, oral language into writing. 145. English as a Second Language - ANSWER A way of teaching English to speakers of other languages using English as the language of instruction. 146. Expository Text - ANSWER Non-fiction that provides information and facts. This is what newspapers, science, mathematics, and history texts use. Currently there is much focus, even in elementary schools, on teaching children how to comprehend and author _________ text. They must produce brochures, guides, recipes, and procedural accounts on most elementary grade levels. The teaching of reading of this type of text requires working with a particular vocabulary and concept structure that is very different from that of narrative text. Therefore, time must be taken to teach the reading of this text and contrasting it with the reading of narrative text. 147. First Language - ANSWER An ELL term for the language any child acquires in the first few years of life. It is through this acquired language that the child develops phonological and phonemic awareness. 148. Flesch, Chall, Stahl, Adams, Johnson, and Bauman - ANSWER Theorists who believe that a phonics-centered approach is crucial for reading success. 149. Flesch, Rudolf - ANSWER A key theorist who supports a phonics centered approach before the use of engaging reading texts. This is at the crux of the phonics versus whole language/balanaced literacy/integrated language arts, teaching of reading controversy (The Reading Wars). 150. Fluent Readers - ANSWER These readers are able to identify most words automatically. They can read chapter books with good comprehension. They consistently monitor, crosscheck, and self correct reading. They can offer their own interpretations of text based on personal experiences and prior reading experiences. They are capable of reading a variety of genres independently. Furthermore, they can respond to texts or stories by sharing pertinent examples from their lives. They can also readily make connections to other books they have read. Finally, they are capable of beginning to create spoken and written text in the style of a particular author. 151. Formal Assessment - ANSWER A test or an observation of performance done under controlled and regulated conditions. 152. Fountas and Pinnell - ANSWER The Developing Readers Assessment System for leveling books was developed by _________________________________. 153. Frye - ANSWER Theorist who developed a readability formula and graph. 154. Full-Alphabetic Stage - ANSWER These readers possess extensive working knowledge of the graphophonemic system, and they can use this knowledge to analyze fully the connections between graphemes and phonemes in words. They can decode unfamiliar words and store fully analyzed sight words in memory. 155. Functional Reading - ANSWER The reading of instructions, recipes, coupons, classified ads, notices, signs, and other documents required to be read to function in society and correctly interpret them. 156. Gentile, Lance - ANSWER Oral Language Acquisition Inventory and Oracy Instructional Guide (Oracy = Oral Language + Literacy). 157. Grade Equivalent/Grade Score - ANSWER A score transformed from a raw score on a standardized test into the equivalent score earned by an average student in the norming group. 158. Graphic Organizers - ANSWER These express relationships among various ideas in visual form including sequence, timelines, character traits, fact and opinion, main idea and details, and differences and likenesses. They are particularly helpful for visual learners. 159. Graphophenemic Awareness - ANSWER Refers to alphabetic principle. Involves ability to: • Match all consonant and short vowel sounds. • Read one's own name. • Read one syllable words and high frequency words. • Demonstrate ability to read and understand that as letters in words change, so do the sounds. • Generate the sounds from all letters including consonant blends and long vowel patterns. Blend those different sounds into recognizable words. • Read common sight words. • Read common word families. 160. Graves, Donald - ANSWER Writing Workshop. Observed in the 1970s that children were rarely taught how to write beyond grammar and spelling. His idea was idea was to make them chidren conscious of what successful adult writers do—draft ideas, revise, edit, and publish. He sought to help them become more active in their own education, and not incidentally, more self-aware; he advocated that children write extensively about themselves and their observations. 161. Guided Reading - ANSWER One of the key modes of instruction in the balanced-literacy theory approach. An interactive discussion between the child and the teacher. This mode of reading instruction is generally used when children need extra support in constructing meaning because the text is complex or because their current independent-reading capacities are still limited. 162. High Frequency - ANSWER Frequently used words. These words appear many more times than do other words in ordinary reading material. Examples of such words are as, in, of, and the. These words are also sometimes called service words and are part of sight vocabulary words. A classic, best-known list of these was generated by Dolch (1936). 163. Holistic assessment - ANSWER Assessing performance across multiple criteria as a whole. 164. Independent Reading - ANSWER A set period of time within the daily literacy block when children read books with 95%-100% accuracy on their own. This reading of books by themselves that they can understand without teacher support promotes lifelong literacy and love of learning. This in turn enhances reading mileage, builds fluency, and helps children orchestrate integrated cue strategies. 165. Informal Assessment - ANSWER Observations of children made under informal conditions. These can include kid-watching, checklists, and individual child/teacher conversations. 166. Informal Reading Inventory (IRI) - ANSWER A series of reading excerpts that can be used to determine a child's reading strengths and needs in comprehension and decoding. Many published reading series have one to go with their series. 167. Justified Print - ANSWER The variable positioning of print on the page so that each line ends either a sentence or a phrase. Both right and left margins form a straight line vertically. 168. Kid Watching - ANSWER Term used by the balanced literacy approach for the teacher's deliberate, detailed, and recorded observations of individual student and class literacy behaviors, often done during small-group work. The teacher then reconfigures lessons on these observations to meet the students' individual and group needs. 169. Kinesthetic - ANSWER Learning is tactile as contrasted with an activity where the learner sits still or attempts to sit still in one place. Cutting and moving syllable or word strips or using sandpaper letters. 170. Language Experience - ANSWER Children giving dictation to the teacher who writes their words on a chart or their drawings. This shows children that words can be written down.