Summary
Doing research
The Hows and Whys of Applied Research
Nel Verhoeven
Sixth edition
Made by Iris den Boer
,1. Why do you research?..............................................................................7
1.1 Research approaches..........................................................................8
1.1.1 theory-based or applied research?................................................8
1.1.2 qualitative or quantitative?...........................................................8
1.1.3 inductive or deductive?.................................................................9
1.2 rules for the quality of research..........................................................9
1.2.1 characteristics of critical research.................................................9
1.2.2 quality criteria for carrying out and interpreting research..........10
1.2.3 practical criteria when conducting research...............................11
1.3 research phases................................................................................11
2 Choosing the subject...............................................................................13
2.1 finding a subject................................................................................13
2.2 graduate internships and clients: you can’t always get what you want
................................................................................................................13
2.3 graduate internships and clients: you can’t always get what you want
................................................................................................................14
2.4 group assignment: the division of tasks............................................15
3 the background to your research............................................................15
3.1 recognizing the reason......................................................................15
3.2 writing the background using the 6w method...................................15
3.3 Data Collection (during the preliminary research)............................16
3.3.1 Six steps when searching for information...................................16
3.3.2 searching online..........................................................................17
3.4 The research logbook........................................................................17
4 Main question and objective...................................................................18
4.1.1 terminology.................................................................................18
4.1.2 features of the main question.....................................................18
4.2 Sub-questions: useful or necessary?.................................................19
4.3 Formulating the objective.................................................................20
5. Concept demarcation and theoretical framework..................................20
5.1 Concept demarcation........................................................................20
5.2 Building models.................................................................................21
5.3 Formulating assumptions based on your model................................21
, 5.4 The place of theory in applied research............................................21
6. Research proposal..................................................................................22
6.1 Looking back on the design process.................................................22
6.2 Starting points for the research proposal..........................................22
6.3 From main question to data collection..............................................23
6.4 Compiling a research proposal..........................................................24
6.5 Time schedule...................................................................................24
6.6 Preparing the report..........................................................................24
6.7 Assessing research proposals............................................................25
7. Quantitative data collection methods....................................................25
7.1 Surveys.............................................................................................25
7.2 Secondary analysis...........................................................................26
7.3 Experimental research......................................................................26
7.3.1 Decisions to be made when setting up an experiment..............26
7.3.2 Laboratory experiments..............................................................28
7.3.3 Field experiments........................................................................28
7.4 Monitor..............................................................................................28
7.5 Combination of methods...................................................................29
8. Qualitative methods of data collection..................................................29
8.1 Observational research.....................................................................30
8.1.1 Types of observational research..................................................30
8.1.2 Observation as a research activity..............................................30
8.2 Interviews..........................................................................................31
8.3 Qualitative desk research..................................................................31
8.3.1 Researching source material......................................................31
8.3.2 Content analysis..........................................................................32
8.4 Case studies......................................................................................32
8.4.1 Main features of the case study..................................................32
8.5 Action research.................................................................................33
8.5.1 How does action research work?.................................................33
8.5.2 Applications of action research...................................................33
8.6 Design-oriented research..................................................................34
8.7 Decisions, decisions: choosing the right method..............................34
,9. Research quality.....................................................................................34
9.1 Reliability...........................................................................................34
9.2 Validity..............................................................................................35
9.2.1 Internal validity..........................................................................35
9.2.2 external validity..........................................................................35
9.3 Reliability as a condition for validity.................................................36
9.4 usability.............................................................................................36
10. Sampling..............................................................................................36
10.1 population and sample....................................................................36
10.1.1 what is a population?................................................................36
10.1.2 what is a sample?......................................................................37
10.2 Random samples.............................................................................37
10.3 Non-probability samples..................................................................38
11. Operationalization................................................................................38
11.1 Operationalization of quantitative research....................................38
11.2 Designing questionnaires................................................................39
11.2.1 Questionnaire layouts: types of questions and responses.......39
11.2.2 Formulating good questions and response options..................40
11.2.3 Composite questions and the Likert scale model......................40
11.3 Operationalization in qualitative research.......................................40
12. Going into the field: conducting surveys and interviews.....................41
12.1 Fieldwork for surveys and interviews: practical decisions...............41
12.2 Digital data collection.....................................................................41
12.2.1 Conducting online surveys.......................................................41
12.2.2 Mobile phone research..............................................................42
12.3 Respondents and surveys...............................................................42
12.3.1 The real fieldwork begins.........................................................42
12.3.2 Incentives.................................................................................42
12.4 Interviews: working on rapport.......................................................43
12.4.1 Recruiting respondents............................................................43
12.4.2 Preparing for in-depth interviews.............................................43
12.4.3 Introduction to the interview.....................................................43
12.4.4 Recording conversations...........................................................43
, 12.4.5 Interviewing techniques............................................................44
12.4.6 The course of an interview.......................................................44
13. Processing quantitive data: preparation..............................................45
13.1 preparing the analysis.....................................................................45
13.1.1 Software for quantitative analysis............................................45
13.1.2 Variables...................................................................................46
13.1.3 Step-by-step preparation for the analysis................................46
13.2 Measurement levels of variables.....................................................47
13.3 The next step in the preparation: formulating hypotheses.............47
14. Quantitative analysis...........................................................................48
14.1 Systematic approach to descriptive analysis..................................48
14.1.1 Decisions for more in-depth analysis.......................................48
14.1.2 Step-by-Step plan for descriptive analysis...............................48
14.2 Frequency tables and percentages.................................................48
14.3 Graphs of one variable....................................................................49
14.4 Summary measures........................................................................49
14.4.1 Measures of central tendency..................................................50
14.4.2 Measures of variability.............................................................50
14.5 Cross tabulations.............................................................................50
14.6 Graphs of two variables..................................................................51
15. Qualitative analysis..............................................................................52
15.1 Software as a tool for qualitative analysis.......................................52
15.2 Assumptions for qualitative analysis...............................................52
15.3 Grounded theory approach.............................................................53
15.4 Thematic analysis...........................................................................54
15.4.1 Steps in thematic analysis.......................................................54
15.5 Tools for qualitative analysis...........................................................54
16. The quality of research results............................................................55
16.1 Quality of quantitative analyses......................................................55
16.1.1 Reliability..................................................................................55
16.1.2 Validity......................................................................................56
16.1.3 Nuances in quantitative research quality.................................56
16.2 Quality of qualitative analyses........................................................56
, 16.2.1 Reliability...................................................................................56
16.2.3 Measures to enhance the quality of research............................58
17. Conclusions, discussion and recommendations...................................59
17.1 drawing conclusions........................................................................59
17.1.1 Main features of the conclusion................................................59
17.2 Discussion.......................................................................................60
17.2.1 Evaluating the research process...............................................60
17.2.2 Conclusion and discussion in summary.....................................60
17.3 Research quality revisited...............................................................60
17.3.1 Usability....................................................................................60
17.4 Recommendations and advice........................................................61
17.4.1 Recommendations for the organization....................................61
17.4.2 Recommendations for future research......................................61
17.5 Professional products and applied research....................................61
18. Compiling a report...............................................................................62
18.1 Compiling a research report............................................................62
18.1.1 Title page..................................................................................62
18.1.2 Abstract.....................................................................................63
18.1.3 Table of contents.......................................................................63
18.1.4 Background and introduction....................................................63
18.1.5 Methodology..............................................................................63
18.1.6 Results.......................................................................................63
18.1.7 Conclusion and discussion........................................................64
18.1.8 References................................................................................64
18.1.9 Appendices................................................................................64
18.2 Writing an executive summary........................................................64
18.3 Writing tips......................................................................................65
18.3.1 Well begun is half done.............................................................65
18.3.2 Style, spelling and layout..........................................................65
18.3.3 Table of contents from the start................................................65
18.3.4 Planning and version control.....................................................65
18.3.5 Knowledge utilization................................................................66
19. Source references and list of references..............................................66
, 19.1 Rules for citing literature.................................................................66
19.1.1 Code of conduct for researchers...............................................66
19.1.2 No shortage of guidelines.........................................................67
19.2 Source references in the main body of text....................................67
19.3 Guidelines for the reference list......................................................68
19.3.1 The APA list of references..........................................................68
19.3.2 Sequence of the references......................................................68
20. Presentation and evaluation................................................................69
20.1 Presenting your findings..................................................................69
20.1.1 Tips for presenting your research..............................................69
20.1.2 Target populations for your research project.............................70
20.2 Communicating and publishing about research..............................70
Part 1 design
1. Why do you research?
When you do research you analyze a problem, question or situation
according to a specific phased plan. With this plan you can answer
, questions and solve problems, that’s the objective of doing research.
It doesn’t mean you can get the right answer, but rather you can ask
the right questions.
Research is like a journey:
- Start with an idea or a question
- Elaborate idea or question in greater detail
- Look for sources
- Formulate the key question
- Make a plan, develop certain expectations
- Collect and process information
- Supervise and keep an eye on the quality throughout the project
- Evaluate
- Finally report on the results and present your recommendations
Research toolbox: assumptions, instruments, instructions. They are
the foundation of your project
1.1 Research approaches
Practical considerations:
- Draft a research plan
- Define a clear main question
- Set a deadline
- Set up a budget
- Consultation
1.1.1 theory-based or applied research?
Two main types of research
Theory-bases research: generally answer questions that aim at
developing knowledge, they are questions about theory, more
important for science (internally oriented).
Applied research: is about solving problems that have a practical
application, practical questions, more important for society
(externally oriented).
1.1.2 qualitative or quantitative?
Quantitative method: based on numerical information, figures that
represent objects, organizations, and people. You can make an
objective measurement. Use statistical techniques
Doing research
The Hows and Whys of Applied Research
Nel Verhoeven
Sixth edition
Made by Iris den Boer
,1. Why do you research?..............................................................................7
1.1 Research approaches..........................................................................8
1.1.1 theory-based or applied research?................................................8
1.1.2 qualitative or quantitative?...........................................................8
1.1.3 inductive or deductive?.................................................................9
1.2 rules for the quality of research..........................................................9
1.2.1 characteristics of critical research.................................................9
1.2.2 quality criteria for carrying out and interpreting research..........10
1.2.3 practical criteria when conducting research...............................11
1.3 research phases................................................................................11
2 Choosing the subject...............................................................................13
2.1 finding a subject................................................................................13
2.2 graduate internships and clients: you can’t always get what you want
................................................................................................................13
2.3 graduate internships and clients: you can’t always get what you want
................................................................................................................14
2.4 group assignment: the division of tasks............................................15
3 the background to your research............................................................15
3.1 recognizing the reason......................................................................15
3.2 writing the background using the 6w method...................................15
3.3 Data Collection (during the preliminary research)............................16
3.3.1 Six steps when searching for information...................................16
3.3.2 searching online..........................................................................17
3.4 The research logbook........................................................................17
4 Main question and objective...................................................................18
4.1.1 terminology.................................................................................18
4.1.2 features of the main question.....................................................18
4.2 Sub-questions: useful or necessary?.................................................19
4.3 Formulating the objective.................................................................20
5. Concept demarcation and theoretical framework..................................20
5.1 Concept demarcation........................................................................20
5.2 Building models.................................................................................21
5.3 Formulating assumptions based on your model................................21
, 5.4 The place of theory in applied research............................................21
6. Research proposal..................................................................................22
6.1 Looking back on the design process.................................................22
6.2 Starting points for the research proposal..........................................22
6.3 From main question to data collection..............................................23
6.4 Compiling a research proposal..........................................................24
6.5 Time schedule...................................................................................24
6.6 Preparing the report..........................................................................24
6.7 Assessing research proposals............................................................25
7. Quantitative data collection methods....................................................25
7.1 Surveys.............................................................................................25
7.2 Secondary analysis...........................................................................26
7.3 Experimental research......................................................................26
7.3.1 Decisions to be made when setting up an experiment..............26
7.3.2 Laboratory experiments..............................................................28
7.3.3 Field experiments........................................................................28
7.4 Monitor..............................................................................................28
7.5 Combination of methods...................................................................29
8. Qualitative methods of data collection..................................................29
8.1 Observational research.....................................................................30
8.1.1 Types of observational research..................................................30
8.1.2 Observation as a research activity..............................................30
8.2 Interviews..........................................................................................31
8.3 Qualitative desk research..................................................................31
8.3.1 Researching source material......................................................31
8.3.2 Content analysis..........................................................................32
8.4 Case studies......................................................................................32
8.4.1 Main features of the case study..................................................32
8.5 Action research.................................................................................33
8.5.1 How does action research work?.................................................33
8.5.2 Applications of action research...................................................33
8.6 Design-oriented research..................................................................34
8.7 Decisions, decisions: choosing the right method..............................34
,9. Research quality.....................................................................................34
9.1 Reliability...........................................................................................34
9.2 Validity..............................................................................................35
9.2.1 Internal validity..........................................................................35
9.2.2 external validity..........................................................................35
9.3 Reliability as a condition for validity.................................................36
9.4 usability.............................................................................................36
10. Sampling..............................................................................................36
10.1 population and sample....................................................................36
10.1.1 what is a population?................................................................36
10.1.2 what is a sample?......................................................................37
10.2 Random samples.............................................................................37
10.3 Non-probability samples..................................................................38
11. Operationalization................................................................................38
11.1 Operationalization of quantitative research....................................38
11.2 Designing questionnaires................................................................39
11.2.1 Questionnaire layouts: types of questions and responses.......39
11.2.2 Formulating good questions and response options..................40
11.2.3 Composite questions and the Likert scale model......................40
11.3 Operationalization in qualitative research.......................................40
12. Going into the field: conducting surveys and interviews.....................41
12.1 Fieldwork for surveys and interviews: practical decisions...............41
12.2 Digital data collection.....................................................................41
12.2.1 Conducting online surveys.......................................................41
12.2.2 Mobile phone research..............................................................42
12.3 Respondents and surveys...............................................................42
12.3.1 The real fieldwork begins.........................................................42
12.3.2 Incentives.................................................................................42
12.4 Interviews: working on rapport.......................................................43
12.4.1 Recruiting respondents............................................................43
12.4.2 Preparing for in-depth interviews.............................................43
12.4.3 Introduction to the interview.....................................................43
12.4.4 Recording conversations...........................................................43
, 12.4.5 Interviewing techniques............................................................44
12.4.6 The course of an interview.......................................................44
13. Processing quantitive data: preparation..............................................45
13.1 preparing the analysis.....................................................................45
13.1.1 Software for quantitative analysis............................................45
13.1.2 Variables...................................................................................46
13.1.3 Step-by-step preparation for the analysis................................46
13.2 Measurement levels of variables.....................................................47
13.3 The next step in the preparation: formulating hypotheses.............47
14. Quantitative analysis...........................................................................48
14.1 Systematic approach to descriptive analysis..................................48
14.1.1 Decisions for more in-depth analysis.......................................48
14.1.2 Step-by-Step plan for descriptive analysis...............................48
14.2 Frequency tables and percentages.................................................48
14.3 Graphs of one variable....................................................................49
14.4 Summary measures........................................................................49
14.4.1 Measures of central tendency..................................................50
14.4.2 Measures of variability.............................................................50
14.5 Cross tabulations.............................................................................50
14.6 Graphs of two variables..................................................................51
15. Qualitative analysis..............................................................................52
15.1 Software as a tool for qualitative analysis.......................................52
15.2 Assumptions for qualitative analysis...............................................52
15.3 Grounded theory approach.............................................................53
15.4 Thematic analysis...........................................................................54
15.4.1 Steps in thematic analysis.......................................................54
15.5 Tools for qualitative analysis...........................................................54
16. The quality of research results............................................................55
16.1 Quality of quantitative analyses......................................................55
16.1.1 Reliability..................................................................................55
16.1.2 Validity......................................................................................56
16.1.3 Nuances in quantitative research quality.................................56
16.2 Quality of qualitative analyses........................................................56
, 16.2.1 Reliability...................................................................................56
16.2.3 Measures to enhance the quality of research............................58
17. Conclusions, discussion and recommendations...................................59
17.1 drawing conclusions........................................................................59
17.1.1 Main features of the conclusion................................................59
17.2 Discussion.......................................................................................60
17.2.1 Evaluating the research process...............................................60
17.2.2 Conclusion and discussion in summary.....................................60
17.3 Research quality revisited...............................................................60
17.3.1 Usability....................................................................................60
17.4 Recommendations and advice........................................................61
17.4.1 Recommendations for the organization....................................61
17.4.2 Recommendations for future research......................................61
17.5 Professional products and applied research....................................61
18. Compiling a report...............................................................................62
18.1 Compiling a research report............................................................62
18.1.1 Title page..................................................................................62
18.1.2 Abstract.....................................................................................63
18.1.3 Table of contents.......................................................................63
18.1.4 Background and introduction....................................................63
18.1.5 Methodology..............................................................................63
18.1.6 Results.......................................................................................63
18.1.7 Conclusion and discussion........................................................64
18.1.8 References................................................................................64
18.1.9 Appendices................................................................................64
18.2 Writing an executive summary........................................................64
18.3 Writing tips......................................................................................65
18.3.1 Well begun is half done.............................................................65
18.3.2 Style, spelling and layout..........................................................65
18.3.3 Table of contents from the start................................................65
18.3.4 Planning and version control.....................................................65
18.3.5 Knowledge utilization................................................................66
19. Source references and list of references..............................................66
, 19.1 Rules for citing literature.................................................................66
19.1.1 Code of conduct for researchers...............................................66
19.1.2 No shortage of guidelines.........................................................67
19.2 Source references in the main body of text....................................67
19.3 Guidelines for the reference list......................................................68
19.3.1 The APA list of references..........................................................68
19.3.2 Sequence of the references......................................................68
20. Presentation and evaluation................................................................69
20.1 Presenting your findings..................................................................69
20.1.1 Tips for presenting your research..............................................69
20.1.2 Target populations for your research project.............................70
20.2 Communicating and publishing about research..............................70
Part 1 design
1. Why do you research?
When you do research you analyze a problem, question or situation
according to a specific phased plan. With this plan you can answer
, questions and solve problems, that’s the objective of doing research.
It doesn’t mean you can get the right answer, but rather you can ask
the right questions.
Research is like a journey:
- Start with an idea or a question
- Elaborate idea or question in greater detail
- Look for sources
- Formulate the key question
- Make a plan, develop certain expectations
- Collect and process information
- Supervise and keep an eye on the quality throughout the project
- Evaluate
- Finally report on the results and present your recommendations
Research toolbox: assumptions, instruments, instructions. They are
the foundation of your project
1.1 Research approaches
Practical considerations:
- Draft a research plan
- Define a clear main question
- Set a deadline
- Set up a budget
- Consultation
1.1.1 theory-based or applied research?
Two main types of research
Theory-bases research: generally answer questions that aim at
developing knowledge, they are questions about theory, more
important for science (internally oriented).
Applied research: is about solving problems that have a practical
application, practical questions, more important for society
(externally oriented).
1.1.2 qualitative or quantitative?
Quantitative method: based on numerical information, figures that
represent objects, organizations, and people. You can make an
objective measurement. Use statistical techniques
